Reduction, 75 price

This situation has recently arisen in the UK where competition for gas sales has been encouraged. Gas producers can enter into direct agreements with consumers (ranging from power stations to domestic users), using the national distribution grid if necessary. The impact of this change on gas price has been significant a reduction of around 60% in the period of a year. 

In order to be able to reduce prices, even more and more test- and measurement systems are integrated on PC-boards. The powerful and inexpensive PC eomponents can be directly u.sed for these (virtual) instruments. The limited dimensions of the PC boards require a reduction to the absolute necessity of the electronic components. Analogue signal proeessing must carried out by software as far as possible. 

Gadolinium is found in several other minerals, including monazite and bastnasite, both of which are commercially important. With the development of ion-exchange and solvent extraction techniques, the availability and prices of gadolinium and the other rare-earth metals have greatly improved. The metal can be prepared by the reduction of the anhydrous fluoride with metallic calcium. 

An approach to copolymerization has been advanced by Price and Alfrey which attempts to both combine resonance and polarity considerations and accomplish the data reduction strategy of the last paragraph. It should be conceded at the outset that the Price-Alfrey method is only semiquantitative in its success. Its greatest usefulness is probably in providing some orientation to a new system before launching an experimental investigation. 

Since the 1960s, the quaUty of M-ferrite manufactured has improved continuously, while the price has decreased considerably. Decisive progress in quahty was obtained by the appHcation of sinter additives (90), the introduction of pressing in a magnetic field (23), and the use of Sr instead of Ba, in combination with a sophisticated appHcation of Si02 (91,92). Important contributions to price reduction came from the development of fast multiple-die... 

The economics of the arc-coal process is sensitive to the electric power consumed to produce a kilogram of acetylene. Early plant economic assessments indicated that the arc power consumption (SER = kwh/kgC2H2) must be below 13.2. The coal feedcoal quench experiments yielded a 9.0 SER with data that indicated a further reduction to below 6.0 with certain process improvements. In the propane quench experiment, ethylene as well as acetylene is produced. The combined process SER was 6.2 with a C2H2/C2H4 production ratio of 3 to 2. Economic analysis was completed uti1i2ing the achieved acetylene yields, and an acetylene price approximately 35% lower than the price of ethylene was projected. 

As can be seen in Figure 8, the proportion of world pig iron produced in the United States has decreased dramatically since 1950. Also notable is the widening gap between pig iron and steel production, indicating the increasing use of recycled iron or scrap (see Recycling, ferrous metals) and alternative iron sources such as DRI and HBI. The increased demand for scrap is reflected in scrap iron prices (Fig. 9), which in turn have spurred growth in direct reduction processes. 

The principal worldwide manufacturers of nylon resins are given in Table 6. Total sales of nylon plastics in the United States and Canada in 1993 were 331,000 metric tons (37). West European sales were 352,000 t and Japanese sales 220,000 t (37). Figure 7 shows how sales in the United States have steadily increased since 1967 (38) and also how the price of nylon-6,6 has changed (39). The effect of the oil price rises, the boom of the mid-1980s, as well as the oil price reduction and the recession that followed are clearly evident. Table 7 shows the variation of price across different polyamide types. 

The production of sihcon tetrachloride by these methods was abandoned worldwide in the early 1980s. Industrial tetrachlorosilane derives from two processes associated with trichlorosilane, the direct reaction of hydrogen chloride on sihcon primarily produced as an intermediate for fumed sihca production, and as a by-product in the disproportionation reaction of trichlorosilane to silane utilized in microelectronics. Substantial quantities of tetrachlorosilane are produced as a by-product in the production of zirconium tetrachloride, but this source has decreased in the 1990s owing to reduction in demand for zirconium in nuclear facihties (see Nuclearreactors). The price of tetrachlorosilane varies between l/kg and 25/kg, depending on grade and container. 

The production of steel is of great importance in most countries because modem civilization depends heavily on steel, the raw material for many industries. As a result, most countries have an active steel industry, which at one time was heavily subsidized but as of this writing is increasingly privatized. The world trade in steel was frequently a source of hard currency where the United States was the main contributor. Trade is much more at market prices that reflect the real cost of production. Under these conditions, the United States in its own market is very often the low cost producer following massive cost reduction in the 1980s. The United States can export a few million tons per year at a profit. 

Economic Aspects. Merchant sulfur dioxide is produced by eight North American manufacturers the total was about 410,000 metric tons in 1994 (310,000 in the United States, 90,000 in Canada). The largest producers in the United States are Rhc ne-Poulenc (from sulfur trioxide reduction by sulfur) and Hoechst Celanese. There is also a larger captive production. Growth of merchant sulfur dioxide is projected at 2—3%/yr. The mid-1995 price was 0.25/kg. 

Paradoxically, even rapid lowering of demand may cause rapid cost escalation this was the case in New Jersey during a 1981 drought when conservation caused substantial shrinking of demand and private water companies had to double their water prices. The continued increase of demand and reduction of supply portend real and relendess water-cost increases in every part of the United States in the future. One possible way to assure at least adequate suppHes, and possibly to moderate these cost increases, is through water reuse. 

Its production was 621 t and the average price 0.75/kg in 1987. Direct YeUow 44 (64) is prepared by phosgenation of an equimolar mixture of metanilic acid coupled to o-anisidinomethanesulfonic acid (with subsequent hydrolysis of the methanesulfonic acid group) and nitro aniline coupled to sahcychc acid (with subsequent reduction of the nitro group). 

U.S. imports of calcium metals fluctuate greatiy. Since the mid-1980s, the avadabiHty of very low priced calcium metal from China and the CIS has led to substantial reductions in calcium production by Western producers. This has been compensated to a certain extent by an increase in sales of processed materials, ie, alloys and particulates, by the Western companies. In 1991, more than 700 tons of calcium metal were imported to the United States from the People s RepubHc of China. Significant quantities of calcium alloys and particulates have also been imported from France and Canada. 

Further reduction in the price of carbon fibers may enable penetration into the automotive market. A primary carbon fiber producer has armounced that prices will drop to 700 yen/kg ( 6.80/lb) by 1995 (73) and that cooperative development efforts with a main Japanese automobile producer are underway. Development for use in constmction, such as cement and cable reinforcement, and marine apphcations will result in sustained growth volume through the eady twenty-first century. 

The U.S. chemical industry achieved an annual reduction of 4.2% in energy input per unit of output for the period 1975—1985 (2). This higher reduction resulted from cost optimization, the tradeoff of increased capital for reduced energy use, that was driven by energy prices (4). In contrast, from 1985 to 1990, the energy input per unit of output has been almost flat (2) as a consequence of falling prices. The average price the U.S. chemical industry paid for natural gas fell by one-third between 1985 and 1988 (1,5). 

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