Reduction and Grounding

Classical accounts of non-causal and, usually, non-conceptual dependence relations have tried to come up with explications in terms of metaphysical modality (see, for example, Simons 1987). Recently, this view has been attacked by, for example, Correia (2005), and Fine (2005). There are two sorts of criticism of this approach that are relevant for the present discussion. One criticism concerns what Fine dubbed modal-mania in metaphysics (2005, 9). Roughly, it is argued that modal notions cannot be used to define a relevantly directional relation, or, in the syntactic sense, a directional expression. Thus, focus shifted towards explanatory concepts. And this is where the second criticism enters Fine (2001) argued that because and similar expressions do not express a relation. This latter point will be ignored for the present discussion, although it should be noted that if it is correct, then the reduction-relaAon as described here is not that of explanatory dependence. The reduction relation is 

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This chapter continued the debate on the relation between holistic approaches to reduction (Chap. 8), with an eye on the relation between reduction and forms of unification, and it applied the explication proposed here to issues such as reduction and grounding, reduction and intervention, reduction and physicalism, and reduction and the notion of scientific levels. One notion of a scientific level is tied to modes of presentations, in a way that can, again, be illuminated referring to property structures. Unification is to be expected in reductions We subsume apparently different phenomena under one coherent conceptual scheme, achieve ontological unification and epistemic as well as explanatory unification. Reduction is a cognate, or a version of grounding, and knowledge of true reduction statements has an impact on the set of intended interventions we have access to. 

Franco DV, Da Silva LM, Jardim WF (2009) Reduction of hexavalent chromium in soil and ground water using zero-valent iron under batch and semi-batch conditions. Water Air Soil Poll 197(4) 49-60... 

Brightener structures of only moderate molecular size are of interest for white grounds in the transfer printing of polyester fabrics. Derivatives of 6-acetamidoquinoxaline with an electron-donating substituent (X) in the 2-position (11.48) were prepared by converting quinoxalin-2-one to 2-chloro-6-nitroquinoxaline and condensation with amines (X = RNH), alcohols (X = RO) or phenols (X = PhO), followed by reduction and acetylation (Scheme 11.19). The nitro intermediates (11.49) are also of interest as low-energy disperse dyes for polyester [61]. 

The choice of new complexes was guided by some simple considerations. The overall eel efficiency of any compound is the product of the photoluminescence quantum yield and the efficiency of excited state formation. This latter parameter is difficult to evaluate. It may be very small depending on many factors. An irreversible decomposition of the primary redox pair can compete with back electron transfer. This back electron transfer could favor the formation of ground state products even if excited state formation is energy sufficient (13,14,38,39). Taking into account these possibilities we selected complexes which show an intense photoluminescence (0 > 0.01) in order to increase the probability for detection of eel. In addition, the choice of suitable complexes was also based on the expectation that reduction and oxidation would occur in an appropriate potential range. 

The manufacture of fine chemicals and pharmaceuticals generates in the order of 25-100 times more waste than product [52], Inorganic salts account for the bulk of the waste and are most often produced by neutralization of acidic or basic solutions [53]. Salts can pollute soil and ground water, lower the pH of atmospheric moisture and they may contribute to acid dew or acid rain [6]. For cleaner production, their minimization is essential and hence our concentration on new processes, such as the etherification (discussed in Sect. 2.6.3.1) and hydrogen transfer reduction (Sect. 2.6.3.2), that avoid salt formation and the use of salts. 

Effect-based critical limits for soils and ground water have been derived or are under development in various countries for multiple purposes (Radojevic and Bashkin, 1999). These criteria can be used to assess the environmental quality of a site or area, to set priorities in control measures and to derive emission reduction goals. Most of the values are derived from comparable starting points such as protecting terrestrial population, water supply, food quality, and finally, animal and human health. 

The advantages of MAE are short extraction times (10 min), extraction of many samples at one time (up to 14, depending on the system), and less organic solvent consumed. In one recent study [29], MAE was used to extract paclitaxel from Iranian yew trees. The needles of the tree were air-dried and ground. The needles were covered with methanol-water and placed in the MAE apparatus. Extractions took 9-16 min. The extracts were filtered and analyzed by HPLC. Further optimization of the method resulted in less than 10% RSDs for precision and greater than 87% recovery. The overall benefits of the MAE method are reduced extraction times (15-20 min versus 17 h), minimal sample handling, and 75-80% reduction in solvent consumption [29]. 

Selenium (masses 74, 76, 77, 78, 80, and 82 Table 1) and chromium (masses 50, 52, 53 54 Table 1) are treated together in this chapter because of their geochemical similarities and similar isotope systematics. Both of these elements are important contaminants in surface and ground water. They are redox-active and their mobility and environmental impact depend strongly on valence state and redox transformations. Isotope ratio shifts occur primarily during oxyanion reduction reactions, and the isotope ratios should serve as indicators of those reactions. In addition to environmental applications, we expect that there will be geological applications for Se and Cr isotope measurements. The redox properties of Se and Cr make them promising candidates as recorders of marine chemistry and paleoredox conditions. 

Fig. 2. Metallothermic reduction at 1525 K of Am02 by La metal as a function of time O and , mixtures of Am02 powder and La metal turnings A, pelletized mixture of Am02 powder and ground La metal turnings.

Most often precast producers use finely ground cement such as ASTM Type III to obtain desired production cycles. The high water reduction and concomitant rapid strength gain afforded by the use of superplasticizers will enable the precast producer to change to the more economical Type I cement (Table 7.8). 

Typical aromatic donors and acceptors undergo only minor geometry changes upon oxidation or reduction or upon population of the triplet state for these compounds, the reaction sequence ET followed by BET has no effect on the structure. If the triplet state or biradical belongs to a different stmcture type than radical ion and ground-state precursor, as is the case for cis- or fraui-1,2-diphenylcyclopropane (65) or norbornadiene (16) BET may occur with cleavage or for-mation of one or more C—C bonds. In such cases, the sequence ET-BET may... 

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