Red tide dinoflagellates

Scheme 2 Polyether toxins form red tide dinoflagellates...

Surprisingly few studies have been performed with purified toxins. When added externally to the water, toxins of various origins were tested on the cope-pod Tigriopus californicus. The protein phosphatase inhibitor okadaic acid (17) from red tide dinoflagellates [22] and the neuronal depolarizing agent do-moic acid (10) from diatoms [40, 41] had different effects on the herbivores (Scheme 3). Micromolar concentrations of okadaic acid (17) acted both as toxin... 

Pohnert G, Steinke M, Tollrian R (2007) Chemical cues, defence metabolites and the shaping of pelagic interspecific interactions. Trends Ecol Evol 22 198-204 Prince EK, Lettieri L, McCurdy KJ, Kubanek J (2006) Fitness consequences for copepods feeding on a red tide dinoflagellate deciphering the effects of nutritional value, toxicity, and feeding behavior. Oecologia 147 479 188... 

Toxins from Florida s Red Tide Dinoflagellate Ptychodiscus brevis... 

White, A. W., Sensitivity of marine fishes to toxins from the red-tide dinoflagellate Gonyaulax excavata and implications for fish kills, Mar. Biol., 65, 255, 1981. 

Ives, J. D., Possible mechanisms underlying copepod grazing responses to levels of toxicity in red tide dinoflagellates, J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol., 112, 131, 1987. 

Uye, S. and Takamatsu, K., Feeding interactions between planktonic copepods and red-tide dinoflagellates from Japanese coastal waters, Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 59, 97, 1990. 

Vemet, M. and Whitehead, K., Release of ultraviolet-absorbing compounds by the red-tide dinoflagel-late Lingulodinium polyedra, Mar. Biol., 127, 35, 1996. 

Carreto, J. I., Carignan, M. O., Daleo, G., and De Marco, S. G., Occurrence of mycosporine-like amino acids in the red tide dinoflagellate Alexandrium excavatum. UV-photoprotective compounds , J. Plankton Res., 12, 909, 1990. 

Bjornland, T., Haxo, F. T., and Liaaen-Jensen, S. 2003. Carotenoids of the Florida red tide dinoflagellate Karenia brevis. Biochem. Sys. Ecol., 31,1147-1162. 

BTXsA, B C)] (polyalicyclic polyether) (Gymnodiminium breve) (toxic red tide dinoflagellate) soluble, toxic]... 

Gray, M., Wawrik, B., Paul, J, and Casper, E. 2003. Molecular detection and quantitation of the red tide dinoflagellate Karenia brevis in the marine environment. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 5726—5730. 

Latz, M.I., and Jeong, H.J. 1996. Effect of red tide dinoflagellate diet and cannibalism on file bioluminescence of the heterotrophic dinoflagellates Protoperidinium spp. Mar EcolProg Ser 132, 275-285. 

Although red tides occurred before human population density became high, the frequency and widespread occurrence of particular red tides is often attributed to eutrophic conditions along coasts caused by runoff of agricultural fertilizers and animal wastes. Unfortunately, the spores of these organisms are readily transported from one sea to another in the ballast waters of ships. It is thought that red tide dinoflagellates are now widely distributed around the oceans of our planet because of these human influences. 

Lipophilic polyether neurotoxin produced by red tide dinoflagellate gymnodinium breve... 

Smalley, G.W. and Coats, D.W. (2002) Ecology of the red-tide dinoflagellate Ceratium furca Distribution, mixotrophy, and grazing impact on ciliate populations of Chesapeake Bay. Journal of... 

Yamaguchi, M. and Itakura, S. (1999) Nutrition and growth kinetics in nitrogen- or phosphorus-limited cultures of the noxious red tide dinoflagellate Gymnodinium mikimotoi. Fisheries Science, 65, 367-373. 

Saxitoxin (120), a paralytic shellfish poisoning alkaloid, was obtained from cultures of a red tide dinoflagellate Alexandrium sp. The toxin is also used for studies on ion channels. The biosynthesis of saxitoxin (120) involves arginine as a precursor of the guanidinio groups, whereas the perhydropurine skeleton is derived from Claisen condensation of acetate with arginine. The carbon atom in the side chain is derived from Y-adenosyl methionine. " ... 

The stereoselectivity seen in the reduction of the seven-membered ketone above has proved to be general. This particular result, rationalized by the propensity for pseudoaxial hydride addition under Luche conditions, proved useful in the convergent total synthesis of Gymnocin-A, a polycyclic ether toxin isolated from the red tide dinoflagellate—Karenia mikimotoi.u The Luche reduction was used for the production of allylic alcohol 9 from ketone 8 in 84% yield. Luche conditions were similarly applied to the synthesis of the related polycyclic ether toxin gambierol.12... 

Jeong, H.J. et ah. Feeding by phototrophic red-tide dinoflagellates Five species newly revealed and six species previously known to be mixotrophic, A naf. Microb. Ecol., 40, 133, 2005. 

Blum, P.C., Henry, M.S., Pierce, R.H., Payne, S.R., and Lyons, J.I. Intra-cellular and extra-cellular toxins in the red tide dinoflagellate, Gymnodinium breve, J. Phycol, 36, 7-7, 2000. 

Collumb, C.J. and Buskey, E.J. Effects of the toxic red tide dinoflagellate Karenia brevis) on survival fecal pellet production and fecundity of the copepod Acartia tonsa, in Harmful Algae 2002, Steidinger, K.A., Landsberg, J.H., Tomas, C.R. and Vargo, G.A. Eds., I.O.C. of UNESCO, 2004, pp. 44-45. 

Doncette, G.J., McGovern, E.R., and Babinchak, J.A. Bacterial infinences on HAB popnlation dynamics. Part 1 Algicidal bacteria active against the Elorida red tide dinoflagellate Gymnodinium breve. J. PhycoL, 35, 1447-1454, 1999. 

Evens, T.J., Kirkpatrick, G.J., Mille, D.R, Chapman, D.J., and Schofield, O.M.E. Photophysiological responses of the toxic red-tide dinoflagellate Gymnodinium breve (Dinophyceae) nnder natnral snnlight. J. Plank. Res., 23, 1177-1193, 2001. 

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