Production in moths

Rafaeli A. and Gileadi C. (1997) Neuroendocrine control of pheromone production in moths. Invert. Neurosci. 3, 223-229. 

Raina A. K. (1997) Control of pheromone production in moths. In Insect Pheromone Research New Directions, eds R. T. Carde and A. K. Minks, pp. 21-30. Chapman Hall, New York. 

Raina A. K., Kempe, T. G. and Jaffe H. (1991) Pheromone biosynthesis-activating neuropeptide Regulation of pheromone production in moths. In Insect Neuropeptides Chemistry, Biology and Action, eds J. J. Menn, T. J. Kelly and E. P. Masler, pp. 100-109. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC. 

Abstract Pheromones are utilized by many insects in a complex chemical communication system. This review will look at the biosynthesis of sex and aggregation pheromones in the model insects, moths, flies, cockroaches, and beetles. The biosynthetic pathways involve altered pathways of normal metabolism of fatty acids and isoprenoids. Endocrine regulation of the biosynthetic pathways will also be reviewed for the model insects. A neuropeptide named pheromone biosynthesis activating neuropeptide regulates sex pheromone biosynthesis in moths. Juvenile hormone regulates pheromone production in the beetles and cockroaches, while 20-hydroxyecdysone regulates pheromone production in the flies. 

The site of pheromone production in flies and cockroaches that utilize hydrocarbons is similar to that of the moths. Oenocyte cells produce the hydrocarbon pheromone which is transported by lipophorin in the hemolymph to epidermal cells throughout the body for release from the cuticular surface in general [20,21]. 

The role of the nervous system in pheromone biosynthesis in moths is not clearly understood. Christensen and co-workers [208-211] proposed that the neurotransmitter octopamine may be involved as an intermediate messenger during the stimulation of sex pheromone production in H. virescens. These workers suggested that octopamine was involved in the regulation of pheromone production and that PBAN s role lies in the stimulation of octopamine release at nerve endings. However, contradicting results concerning octopa-mine-stimulated pheromone production were reported in the same species as well as other moth species [163,172,212-214]. 

In moths, it was discovered in Helicoverpa zea that a peptide produced in the subesophageal ganglion portion of the brain complex regulates pheromone production in female moths (19). This factor has been purified and characterized in three species, Helicoverpa zea (20), Bombyx mori (21, 22), and Lymantria dispar (23). They are all a 33- or 34-amino acid peptide (named pheromone biosynthesis activating neuropeptide, PBAN) and have in common an amidated C-terminal 5-amino acid sequence (FXPRL-amide), which is the minimum peptide fragment required for pheromon-tropic activity. In the redbanded leafroller moth, it was shown that PBAN from the brain stimulates the release of a different peptide from the bursae copulatrix that is used to stimulate pheromone production in the pheromone gland found at the posterior tip of the abdomen (24). 

Vick, K.W., Koehler, P.G., and Neal, J.J. 1986. Incidence of store-product phycitinae moths in food distribution warehouses as determined by sex pheromone-baited traps. J. Econ. Entonol. 79, 936-939. 

Chlorinated aromatics, including monochlorobenzene (MCB), o-dichloroben-zene (o-DCB), and p-dichlorobenzene (p-DCB), are the major chlorinated aromatic species produced on an industrial scale. MCB is used as both a chemical intermediate and a solvent. As an intermediate, it is used to produce chloroni-trobenzene, pesticides, and pharmaceutical products. In solvent applications, MCB is used in the manufacture of isocyanates. Its high solvency allows it to be used with many types of resins, adhesives, and coatings. The o-dichlorobenzene is used primarily for organic synthesis, especially in the production of 3,4-dichlo-roaniline herbicides. Like MCB, it can be used as a solvent, especially in the production of isocyanates. It is also used in motor oil and paint formulations. The p-dichlorobenzene is used as a moth repellent and for the control of mildew and fungi. It also is used for odor control. It is a chemical intermediate for the manufacture of pharmaceuticals and other organic chemicals. 

Most of the 1,4-di chlorobenzene enters the environment as a result of its uses in moth-repellant products and in toilet-deodorizer blocks. Because it changes from a solid to a gas easily, almost all of what is produced is released into the air. Some 1,4-di chlorobenzene is released to the air by factories that make or use it, and minor amounts are released to soil and water. Very little 1,4-dichlorobenzene enters the environment from hazardous waste sites. 

In addition, individuals using space deodorants (air fresheners), toilet block deodorants, or moth repellents (moth balls or crystal) containing 1,4-dichlorobenzene in their homes have the potential for high exposure to this compound (Scuderi 1986). Indoor air concentrations resulting from the use of these products in bathrooms and closets have been measured at levels up to 1.3 mg/m (0.22 ppm) (Scuderi 1986). 

Blest, A. D. (1964). Protective display and sound production in some new world arctiid and ctenuchid moths. Zoologica 49 161-181. 

Long-distance mate location that is mediated by pheromones is true communication as defined by Burghardt (1970), in that there are selective constraints on both the females production of the signal and the males response - in other words, selection favors some individuals over others in finding a mate. In a provocative argument, Williams (1992) contended that the female odor used by males for mate location is not a pheromone, because in moths there is no special machinery ... 

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