Polychlorinated dibenzofurans sources

Harnly, M.F., Petreas, M.X., Flattery, J. and Goldman, F.R. 2000. Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin and polychlorinated dibenzofuran contamination in soil and home-produced chicken eggs near pentachlorophenol sources. Environmental Science and Technology 34 1143-1149. 

Fig. 11.3. Experimental solubilities of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) from various sources vs. values predicted from COSMO-RS [137].

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (generally known as PCDDs and PCDFs) are ubiquitous environmental contaminants. The known sources of PCDDs and PCDFs are many, including the following ... 

Minh, N.H., Minh, T.B., Watanabe, M., Kunisue, T., Monirith, I., Tanabe, S., Sakai, S., Subramanian, A.N., Sasikumar, K., Viet, P.H., Tuyen, B.C., Tana, T.S., Prudente, M.S., 2003. Open dumping site in Asian developing countries a potential source of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37, 1493-1502. 

The sources of unintentionally produced POP chemicals, polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDD), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF), and hexachlorobenzene (HCB), has been estimated through the National Implementation Plan (NIP) for Malaysia. However, an official report has not been made public. The draft final report on the assessment of unintentionally produced chemicals conducted by Universiti Sains Malaysia... 

Eitzer BD. 1993. Comparison of point and nonpoint sources of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans to sediments of the Housatonic River. Environ Sci Technol 27(8) 1632-1637. 

Huntley SL, Iannuzzi TJ, Avantaggio JD, et al. 1997. Combined sewer overflows (CSOs) as sources of sediment contamination in the lower Passaic River, New Jersey Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, polychlorinated dibenzofurans, and polychlorinated biphenyls. Chemosphere 34(2) 233-250. 

Vizard, C. G., Rimmer, D. L., Pless-Mulloli, T., Singleton, I., and Vivienne, S. (2006). Air identifying contemporary and historic sources of soil polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans in an industrial urban setting. Sci. Total Environ. 370(1), 61—69. 

In this volume of Issues we address the sources, environmental cycles, uptake, consequences and control of many of the more important chlorinated organic micropollutants. Under this heading we have included a range of semi-volatile persistent compounds, notably polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) as well as a number of chlorinated pesticides. We have not sought to include volatile species such as CFCs which cause environmental problems of an entirely different nature. The compounds included in this volume cause no threat to the stratospheric ozone layer, but have given widespread cause for concern in relation to their environmental persistence and high toxicity, and their potential for adverse effects on humans and wildlife. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (1991), Fed. Regist. 56 5758-5775. Method 23 Determination of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans from stationary sources", Washington, D.C. 

It is now generally accepted that combustion is the almost exclusive source of the carcinogen and endocrine-disrupting chemical family of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/F or dioxins for short). Dioxins are part of a broader class of chlorinated organic air pollutants that are produced by most combustion sources. All that is necessary are a small source of chlorine (that may even be in the combustion makeup air), a catalytic metal, and a hydrocarbon. 

It is now known that endocrine disrupting chemicals are emitted from combustion sources. Interest has focused on the emissions of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/F), which are also known carcinogens. However, oxy-PAH, epoxides, and other oxygenated species are known EDCs. These can also be emitted from combustion sources, although they are not well characterized. They are semipolar compounds that are difficult to analyze. Thus, improved methods of analysis are needed in conjunction with biological testing to determine the nature and quantity of EDC emissions from combustion sources. 

Determination of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans from stationary sources... 

Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDDs/PCDFs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are now ubiquitous in the environment. Their occurrence in indoor air mainly results from the frequent use of chemical products such as paints, glue, sealants, fire retardants and wood protection agents up to the mid-1980s. Furthermore, PCDDs/PCDFs and PAHs are always formed to some extent during incomplete combustion processes. A list of possible sources is given in Table 1.4-1. 

Polychlorinated dibenzo-y>-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are chemically classified as halogen-ated (polychlorinated) aromatic hydrocarbons (PHAH). Dioxins are formed as a by-product of chemical processes, whereas PCBs are synthesized by direct chlorination of biphenyls. Due to their lipophilic character, they are concentrated in the food chain and both humans and wildhfe are exposed to them. The major source of human exposure is through the diet, as these substances are concentrated in fatty tissues of beef, poultry, pork and fish, and through cigarette smoking. Moreover, maternal milk contains considerable amounts of PCBs and dioxins. 

Fish-eating birds usually have the highest concentrations of PCDDs of all birds measured. Diet is the major route of PCDD accumulation in livers of fish-eating birds. Fish-eating birds and their food from the Netherlands are contaminated with 2,3,7,8-substituted PCDDs and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) pen-tachlorophenol and polychlorinated biphenyls are the two major contaminating sources of PCDDs and PCDFs. A linear relation exists between the retained PCDDs and PCDFs in the livers of cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo). 

SW-846, is used to measure emissions of semivolatile principal organic constituents. Method 0010 is designed to determine destruction and removal efficiency (DRE) of POHCs from incineration systems. The method involves a modification of the EPA Method 5 sampling train and may be used to determine particulate emission rates from stationary sources. The method is applied to semivolatile compounds, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), chlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans, polycyclic organic matter, and other semivolatile organic compounds. 

McLachlan, M.S., Horstmann, M., Hinkel, M., Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in sewage sludge sources and fate following sludge application to land, Sci. Total Environ., 185,1996, 109-123. 

Gihr, R., Klopffer, W., Rippen, G. and Partscht, I., Investigations of potential sources of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in sewage sludges, Chemosphere, 23,1991, 1653-1659. 

Hagenmaier, H., Linding, C., She, J., Correlation of environmental occurrence of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans with possible sources, Chemosphere 29, 1994,2163-2174. 

Zook DR, Rappe C Environmental sources, distribution, and fate of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, dibenzofurans, and related organochlorines. In Schecter A (ed.) Dioxins and Health, 80pp. New York, Plenum Press, 1994... 

As discussed in the earlier survey (1), a biogenic source of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans is peroxidase-catalyzed transformation of chlorophenols as first reported by Oberg and Rappe (2041-2044). More recent studies confirm these observations (2045-2048). In addition to lactoperoxidase and horseradish peroxidase, human leukocyte myeloperoxidase catalyzes in vitro formation of dioxins and dibenzofurans from chlorophenols (2046, 2047). Formation rates are in the pmol/mol range (Scheme 3.6) demonstrating that a human biosynthesis of dioxins and furans is not only possible but also likely. These observations are reinforced by the reported in vivo (rats) conversion of the pre-dioxin nona-chloro-2-phenoxyphenol to octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (OCDD) (2049), and the production of hepta- and octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in the feces of cows fed pentachlorophenol-treated wood (Scheme 3.7) (2050, 2051). 

Fiedler H, Lau C, Kjeller L-O, Rappe C (1996) Patterns and Sources of Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-dioxins and Dibenzofurans Found in Soil and Sediment Samples in Southern Mississippi. Chemosphere 32 421... 

Im, S.H., Kannan, K., Matsuda, M., Giesy, J.P., Wakimoto, T., 2002b. Sources and di-sribution of polychlorinated dibenzo-/ -dioxins and dibenzofurans in sediments from Masan Bay, Korea. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 21, 245-252. 

Xu, Y., Wu, W.Z., Schramm, K.W., Henkelmann, B., Kettrup, A., 1999. Sources, fate, bioaccumulation and sinks of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in the Peoples Republic of China, especially Ya-Er Lake Area, near Wuhan. GSF-Bericht 03/99, ISSN 0721-1694, 114 Seiten. 

Published data on PCDD/Fs in the environment of the PRD is still limited. A short-term sampling scheme was conducted to determine the levels of particle-bound polychlorinated dibenzo- -dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) in Guangzhou atmosphere and evaluate the impact of PCDD/ Fs to inhabitants. Samples were collected from four different districts of Guangzhou. The results showed that industrial activities had more influences on levels of PCDD/Fs in the sampled districts. The mean PCDD/Fs concentrations (i.e., mean I-TEQ values) of Huadu district, Liwan district, Tianhe district and Huangpu district were 3815-26,530 fg m-3 (104.6-769.3 fgl-TEQ m-3). Emission source analysis indicated that small diffuse sources were relatively important (Yu et al., 2006). 

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