Source biogenic

Note One Tg (teragram) is equivalent to 1 million metric tons. Continental biogenic sources includes animal, microbial, and foliage emissions SOURCE Finlcryson-Pitts Pitts (2000)... 

B., Hebestreit, K., and Platt, U. Short-lived alkyl iodides and bromides at Mace Head, Ireland Links to biogenic sources and halogen oxide production, J. Geophys. Res.-A., 104,1679-1689,... 

Dissolved carbonate in fresh waters may exhibit an extremely variable isotopic composition, because it represents varying mixtures of carbonate species derived from weathering of carbonates and that originating from biogenic sources like freshwater plankton or CO2 from bacterial oxidation of organic matter in the water column or in soils (Hitchon and Krouse 1972 LonginelU and Edmond 1983 PaweUek and Veizer 1994 Cameron et al. 1995). 

Larger hydrocarbons such as the Cl5 sesquiterpenes also have biogenic sources such as sage (Arey et al., 1995). 

In addition to these larger VOCs, there are biogenic sources of a wide variety of small alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, and acids. For example, emissions of methanol and acetone have been reported from plant leaves, grass, and clover (e.g., MacDonald and Fall, 1993 Nemecek-Marshall et al., 1995 Fall and Benson, 1996 Kirstine et al., 1998). Table 6.25 shows some of the compounds measured in grass and clover emissions (Kirstine et al., 1998). Clearly, a wide variety of oxygen-containing species are emitted from this one source alone. Direct emissions of formaldehyde, ac-etaldehye, and formic and acetic acids have been observed from oaks and pines (Kesselmeier et al., 1997). 

Rudolph, J., Biogenic Sources of Atmospheric Alkenes and Acetylene, in Biogenic Volatile Organic Carbon Compounds in the Atmosphere (G. Helas, J. Slanina, and R. Steinbrecher, Eds.), pp. 53-65, SPB Academic Publishing, Amsterdam, f997. 

However, while a great many of these compounds are undoubtedly formed from reactions in air, some are also direct emissions. For example, Kawamura and Kaplan (1987) have identified a number of dicarboxylic acids in automobile exhaust, and Rogge et al. (1991) have identified C4-Cx dicarboxylic acids from meat cooking. In a study in Philadelphia, Lawrence and Koutrakis (1996a, 1996b) attribute dicarboxylic acids to a combination of combustion sources, photochemical formation, and biogenic sources. 

Porphyrins in petroleum and asphalts were first attributed to biogenic sources in 1934. A large literature has built up over the years only a few of the more recent references are cited here (295, 298, 299,300,301). 

Kouvarakis G, Bardouki H, Mihalopoulos N (2002) Sulfur budget above the Eastern Mediterranean relative contribution of anthropogenic and biogenic sources. Tellus 54B 201-212... 

Similarly, if channels are available, biogenic gas may migrate to regions within the hydrate stability envelope. Most of the gas was of biogenic origin in the hydrate core recovered from the Northwest Eileen State Well Number 2, one of the first wells to recover hydrates (Collett, 1983). The biogenic source is likely to predominate for hydrates in permafrost (Kvenvolden, Personal Communication,... 

The concentrations of gases in the core voids were measured, with C i /C2 ratios from approximately 1,200 to 39,000 indicating biogenic sources. Concentrations of propane through heptane were usually below 10 ppmv, and the concentration of carbon dioxide varied widely from 0% to 20% of the free gas. 

As discussed in the earlier survey (1), a biogenic source of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans is peroxidase-catalyzed transformation of chlorophenols as first reported by Oberg and Rappe (2041-2044). More recent studies confirm these observations (2045-2048). In addition to lactoperoxidase and horseradish peroxidase, human leukocyte myeloperoxidase catalyzes in vitro formation of dioxins and dibenzofurans from chlorophenols (2046, 2047). Formation rates are in the pmol/mol range (Scheme 3.6) demonstrating that a human biosynthesis of dioxins and furans is not only possible but also likely. These observations are reinforced by the reported in vivo (rats) conversion of the pre-dioxin nona-chloro-2-phenoxyphenol to octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (OCDD) (2049), and the production of hepta- and octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in the feces of cows fed pentachlorophenol-treated wood (Scheme 3.7) (2050, 2051). 

Carpenter LJ, Sturges WT, Penkett SA, Liss PS, Alicke B, Hebestreit K, Platt U (1999) Short-Lived Alkyl Iodides and Bromides at Mace Head, Ireland Links to Biogenic Sources and Halogen Oxide Production. J Geophys Res 104 1679... 

Includes energy from wood and wood-derived fuels municipal solid waste from biogenic sources, landfill gas, sludge waste, agricultural byproducts and other biomass (through 2000, also includes non-renewable waste such as municipal solid waste from non-biogenic sources, and tire-derived fuels) and fuel ethanol and biodiesel consumption, plus losses and co-products from the production of fuel ethanol and biodiesel. 

Figure 1. Transformations in the ocean and overlying atmosphere which lead to the production of sulfate from a marine biogenic source (dark arrows). DMS is produced in the ocean after the uptake of seawater sulfate by phytoplankton and the production and breakdown of DMSP. Sulfate formation occurs after DMS is transferred across the sea-air interface and undergoes atmospheric oxidation. The S S values for the individual sulfur pools are indicated in the boxes and measured or estimated discriminations (D) are indicated above the arrows. Clearly, data for the remote atmosphere are limited.

Summary of Biogenic Sulfur Emissions from the Ocean. To summarize the source fractionation patterns for biogenic sulfur emissions from the oceam a simple isotopic model has been constructed (Figure 1). From this, the S S value of sulfate from a marine biogenic source of atmospheric sulfur can be estimated. 

---