Human pheromones

PLC of lipids is discussed in Chapter 12. Lipids play a vital role in virtually all aspects of human and animal life. Many smdies of food quality, human health, metabolic and ageing processes, pheromone activity in animals, etc., benefit greatly from the use of PLC for the separation and isolation of lipids. 

Evidence has been accumulating that extracellular metabolic activity of microorganisms, mainly bacteria, occurs within skin glands and on the skin surface (Albone, 1997). Sterile human apocrine secretions do not develop the characteristic axillary odour (Shelley et al., 1953). In the salivary secretions of the boar, transformations of the pheromonal 16-androstene steroids 2. were attributed to the microbial flora (Booth, 1987). 

Preti G. and Wysocki C.J. (1999). Human pheromones releasers or primers, fact or myth In Advances in Chemical Signals in Vertebrates (Johnston R.E., Miiller-Schwarze D. and Sorenson P., eds.). Kluwer Academic Press/Plenum, New York, pp. 315-332. 

Rodriguez I., Greer C., Mok M. and Mombaerts P. (2000). A putative pheromone receptor gene expressed in human olfactory mucosa. Nature Genet 26, 18-19. 

The other major class of extracellular LBPs of mammals is the lipocalins (Flower, 1996). These are approximately 20 kDa, P-sheet-rich proteins, performing functions such as the transport of retinol in plasma or milk, the capture of odorants in olfaction, invertebrate coloration, dispersal of pheromones, and solubilizing the lipids in tears (Flower, 1996). The retinol-binding protein (RBP) of human plasma is found in association with a larger protein, transthyretin, the complex being larger than the kidney threshold and thus not excreted, although the RBP itself may dissociate from the complex to interact with cell surface receptors in the delivery of retinol (Papiz et al., 1986 Sundaram et al., 1998). 

Pheromones have been defined as substances released by an individual into the external environment which precipitate a particular reaction in a conspecific (Karlson and Liischer 1959). Pheromones are used by species in a variety of phyla (see e.g. McClintock, Jacob, Zelano and Hayreh 2001), and there exist many examples of pheromone-mediated behaviour in a wide range of mammals, particularly in relation to mating behaviour and maturation (see e.g. Vandenbergh 1983). In humans however, the question of whether pheromones influence behaviour was recently listed by Science magazine as one of the top 100 outstanding questions (Anon 2005). A recent review of behavioural and anatomical studies relating to the function of pheromones in human interactions concluded that while a small number were unambiguously supportive , none seemed ultimately conclusive (Hays 2003). 

One hurdle for proponents of human pheromones is the lack of clear evidence for a functional human vomeronasal organ (VNO). Located within the nasal cavity,... 

Claims of commercial manufacturers notwithstanding, it is evident that pheromones do not function as behavioural releasers in humans in the same way as they do in other species. Instead of searching for specific reactions to purported human pheromones, it may be that these chemicals are better described as modulators (Jacob and McClintock 2000) which influence psychological states and, thereby, also influence behaviour in a variety of fashions depending on the situation in which they are experienced, or the accompanying cues. The co-occurrence of different cues can affect their interpretation (Rowe 1999). In humans, we know that odour cues provide non-redundant information about potential mates because, while both visual and olfactory cues may be used to gauge physical attractiveness, the information in each is not equivalent (Roberts, Little, Gosling, Jones, Perrett, Carter and Petrie 2005). 

Benton, D. (1982) The influence of androstenol - a putative human pheromone - on mood throughout the menstrual cycle. Biol. Psychol. 15, 249-256. 

Black, S. L. and Biron, C. (1982) Androstenol as a human pheromone No effect on perceived physical attractiveness. Behav. Neural Biol. 34, 326-330. 

Cowley, J. J. and Brooksbank, B. W. L. (1991) Human exposure to putative pheromones and changes in aspects of social behaviour. J. Steroid Biochem. 39, 647-659. 

Grosser, B. I., Monti-Bloch, L., Jennings-White, C. and Berliner, D. L. (2000) Behavioral and electrophysiological effects of androstadienone, a human pheromone. Psychoneuroendocrinol. 25, 289-299. 

Gulyas, B., Keri, S., O Sullivan, B. T., Decety, J. and Roland, P. E. (2004) The putative pheromone androstadienone activates cortical fields in the human brain related to social cognition. Neurochem. Int. 44, 595-600. 

Gustavson, A. R., Dawson, M. E. and Bonett, D. G. (1987) Androstenol, a putative human pheromone, affects human (Homo sapiens) male choice performance. J. Comp. Psychol. 101, 210-212. 

Hays, W. S. T. (2003) Human pheromones Have they been demonstrated Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 

Monti-Bloch, L. and Grosser, B. I. (1991) Effect of putative pheromones on the electrical activity of the human vomeronasal organ and olfactory epithelium. J. Steroid Biochem. 39, 573-582. 

---