Pharmaceuticals, origin

Many pharmaceuticals and environmental pollutants are aromatic amines. Like phenols, this class of compound is generally oxidizable at carbon electrodes. LCEC has been used to study the metabolism of aromatic amines of both environmental and pharmaceutical origin lcec has also been used for the trace determination... 

A wide range of pharmaceutical substances are derived from animal sources (Table 1.10). Many are protein-based and detailed description of products such as insulin and other polypeptide hormones, antibody preparations, vaccines, enzymes, etc., have been deferred to subsequent chapters. (Many of the therapeutic proteins are now also produced by recombinant DNA technology. Considerable overlap would have been generated had a product obtained by direct extraction from native sources been discussed here, with further discussion of a version of the same product produced by recombinant DNA technology at a later stage.) Non-proteinaceous pharmaceuticals originally derived from animal sources include steroid (sex) hormones, corticosteroids and prostaglandins. A limited discussion of these substances is presented below, as they will not be discussed in subsequent chapters. Most of these substances are now prepared synthetically. 

The determination or investigation of inorganic components is relatively seldom carried out in pharmaceutical chemistry. It occurs, for example, in the determination of heavy-metal impurities in chemicals or pharmaceuticals, originally by d.c. polarographic methods, but anodic stripping analysis as described at the beginning of this chapter would be more convenient, or the determination of zinc present in zinc-protamine-insulin as prescribed by the Czechoslovak pharmacopeia [197]. 

Some solvents, such as DMSO and DMF, are very readily adsorbed through the skin and have the ability to carry solutes through the skin with them. Such solvents when present in feedstocks need to be treated with great care, particularly when they have a pharmaceutical origin. Quoted figures for TLV are irrelevant when considering the handling of such solvents in an unrefined state. 

In the previous chapters, the methods of RP and NP HPLC have been discussed in detail. These methods are ideally suited for qualitative and quantitative analytical investigations of complex mixtures of substances. However, they do not allow any statement about the chiral composition of the analyte. Therefore, another liquid chromatographic method is used for the determination of the enantiomeric composition of samples. Enantioselective HPLC, as the method is called, can be viewed as a complementary measurement for the characteri2ation of analytes. This is not only true for samples of pharmaceutical origin, for which monitoring of achiral and enantiomeric purity are mandatory [1], but also for agrochemical products, flavors, and fragrances. 

The brown mussel Pemapema may be also found in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the Atlantic Ocean, as a native species. Thus, it is regularly used for biomonitoring studies in Brazil and other South American countries. Transplanted P pema was exposed to four sites of suspected PAHs, metal and municipal waste pollution (Pereira et al. 2010). At the end of every exposure period a number of enzyme activities were quantified. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) attributed some of the variations found to individual pollutants as far as PAHs were concerned, suppression of CAT, GPx and GR activities were linked with PAHs burden. It was apparent that other pollutants, probably of pharmaceutical origin, also contributed to the results. 

The discovery that usehil chemicals could be made from coal tar provided the foundation upon which the modem chemical industry is built. Industrial chemistry expanded rapidly in the late nineteenth century in German laboratories and factories where coal-tar chemicals were refined and used in synthesis of dyes and pharmaceuticals. But coal-tar production has an eadier origin, dating back to the discovery by William Murdock in 1792 that heating coal in the absence of air generated a gas suitable for lighting. Murdock commercialized this technology, and by 1812 the streets of London were illuminated with coal gas (1). 

Data-Star. This is Europe s leading on-line database service (39) and covers worldwide business news, financial information, market research, trade statistics, business analysis, healthcare / pharmaceuticals, chemicals / petrochemicals, chemical industry, biomedicine /life science, biotechnology, and technology, with an emphasis on Europe. It was originally formed as a joint venture among BRS, Predicasts, and Radio Suisse (the Swiss telecommunications company) (37). Data-Star offers access to about 300 bibliographic, abstract, directory, and fuU-text on-line databases, of which approximately 150 are also available on Dialog (40). 

For dmgs approved originally between 1938 and 1962, the FDA has utilized the Abbreviated New Dmg AppHcation (ANDA) for review of generic products that are pharmaceutical equivalents of the initially approved products. In this way, costiy dupHcation of animal and human experimentation is avoided. The new manufacturer has to show only that its manufacturing methodology, specifications, quaUty control, and labeling are acceptable. In some cases, the FDA does require proof of bioequivalence. 

The chemistry of organic sulfur compounds is very rich and organosulfur compounds are incorporated into many molecules. Thiols, or mercaptans as they were originally called, are essential as feedstocks in the manufacture of many types of mbber (qv) and plastics (qv). They are utilized as intermediates in agricultural chemicals, pharmaceuticals (qv), ia flavors and fragrances, and as animal feed supplements. Many reviews have been undertaken on the chemistry of the thiols, regarding both their preparation and their reactions (1 7). 

Papaverine, used to treat heart diseases as a vasodilator, is a dmg that was originally made from vanillin but has since been made from veratrole and (9f2v (9-l,2-dimethoxybenzene. Vanillin is also used as a pharmaceutical excipient. 

The common name vitamin D is used throughout the pharmaceutical kidustry for simplicity. The trivial name calciferol has also been used extensively with the prefix ergo- and chole-, which kidicate vitamin D2 (2) and vitamin (4), respectively (see Steroids). Vitamin D2 was originally named calciferol in 1931 by Angus and co-wotkets (2). Historically, a number of substances were referred to as vitamin D and were distinguished from one another by a subscript numeral, eg, vitamin D2, vitamin D, etc. 

A. Aituso, Drugs of Natural Origin Economic and Policy Aspects of Discovery, Development, and Marketing, The Pharmaceutical Products Press, New York, 1997, p. 142. 

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