Petroleum fuels considerations

The technology for triglyceride production from microalgae has not yet been commercialized. Most of the economic analyses for the production of microalgal liquids reported in the literature indicate they are much too expensive to compete with petroleum fuels. Considerable additional research must be carried out to perfect the process despite the fact that research on microalgal fuel production has been in progress for at least the past two decades. 

Safety Considerations Design and location of storage tanks, vents, piping, and connections are specified by state fire marshals, underwriters codes, and local ordinances. In NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 1993 (published by the National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Mass.), liquid petroleum fuels are classified as follows for safety in handhng ... 

As for all petroleum products, considerations of safety in storage and transportation and, more particularly, contamination by more volatile products are required. This is usually accommodated by the Pensky-Martens flash point test (ASTM D93 IP 34). For the fuel oil, a minimum flash point of 55°C (131°F) or 66°C (150°F) is included in most specifications. 

This consideration as well as those concerning cost, convenience of use, and availability leads to the conclusion that petroleum fuels will be used for transportation purposes in preference to other fuels as long as crude petroleum is available. Although liquid fuels can be produced from gas, coal, or shale oil, the high energy losses involved in the conversion make such operations unattractive from an energy conservation point of view. Obviously, the direct utilization of gas and coal as produced and of the type of crude oil which can be produced from oil shale by simple retorting is the most desirable procedure and should be followed until petroleum is so scarce or expensive to find that the free play of economic forces dictates the synthesis of liquid fuels. 

The manufacturing processes for liquefied petroleum gas are designed so that the majority, if not all, of the sulfur compounds are removed.The total sulfur level is therefore considerably lower than for other petroleum fuels, and a maximum limit for sulfur content helps to define the product more completely. The sulfur compounds that are mainly responsible for corrosion are hydrogen sulfide, carbonyl sulfide, and, sometimes, elemental sulfur. Hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans have distinctive unpleasant odors. 

This product, given the abbreviation FOD (fuel-oil domestique) in France, still held a considerable market share there of 17 Mt in 1993. However, since 1973 when its consumption reached 37 Mt, FOD has seen its demand shrink gradually owing to development of nuclear energy and electric heating. FOD also faces strong competition with natural gas. Nevertheless, its presence in the French, European and worldwide petroleum balance will still be strong beyond tbe year 2000. 

Cmde oil can be easily separated into its principal products, ie, gasoline, distillate fuels, and residual fuels, by simple distillation. However, neither the amounts nor quaUty of these natural products matches demand. The refining industry has devoted considerable research and engineering effort as well as financial resources to convert naturally occurring molecules into acceptable fuels. Industry s main challenge has been to devise new ways to meet the tremendous demand for gasoline without, at the same time, overproducing other petroleum products. 

The design of propellants for solid fuel rockets differs considerably from that for ordnance, because of the lower operating pressures, usually below 15 MPa. To understand the principles involved it is first necessary to give a brief account of rocket propulsion. In this account considerations will be restricted to motors based on solid propellants. Motors based on liquid fuels, such as petroleum fractions and liquid oxygen, depend on combustion processes of non-explosive type. 

Fuel gas or refinery gas is produced in considerable quantities during the various refining processes and is used as fuel for the refinery itself and as an important feedstock for the petrochemical industry. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is frequently used as domestic bottled gas for cooking and heating, and forms an important feedstock for the petrochemical industry. It is also used in industry for cutting metals. 

Despite this exclusion, the refining industry has come under considerable strain because of several important factors and changes in the industry. Over the years, there has been an increased demand for petroleum products and a decrease in domestic production. However, there has been no new major refinery construction in the United States in the last three decades. This lack of infrastructure growth has caused a strain on the industry in meeting existing demand and has resulted in an increase in the amount of petroleum imports to meet the increasing need for liquid fuel. 

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