Pain behaviour

Butler, S. H., Weil-Fugazza, J., Godefroy, F., Besson, J. M. Reduction of arthritis and pain behaviour following chronic administration of amitryptiline or imipramine in rats with adjuvant-induced arthritis, Pain 1985, 23, 159-175. 

Formalin test A small amount of formalin solution is injected into the hind paw of mice or rats. This induces a bi-phasic pain reaction and a specific pain-related behaviour. The first phase represents acute nociceptive pain, whereas the second phase indicates more persistent pain associated with inflammation and tissue damage. Pain behaviour is observed in both phases and measured by means of a scoring system. Besides opioids, compounds active against inflammatory and neuropathic pain can be detected (Dubuisson and Dennis, Pain 1977, 4, 161-174). 

Pain behaviour comprises consequences of the other three aspects (above) it includes behaviour that is interpreted by others as signifying pain in the victim, e.g. such immediate and obvious aspects as facial expression, restlessness, seeking isolation (or company), medicine-taking, as well as, in chronic pain, the development of querulousness, depression, despair and social withdrawal. 

Supporting the mentee through organizational and personal change - for the mentee, this can be a difficult and even painful experience involving the discarding of many well-established mindsets and behaviours a mentor s support is very much needed to maintain direction and motivation. 

Wallace VC, Blackbeard J et al (2007a) Pharmacological, behavioural and mechanistic analysis of HIV-1 gpl20 induced painful neuropathy. Pain 133(l-3) 47-63 Wallace VC, Blackbeard J et al (2007b) Characterization of rodent models of HIV-gpl20 and anti-retroviral-associated neuropathic pain. Brain 130(Pt 10) 2688-2702 Wechsler AF, Ho DD (1989) Bilateral Bell s palsy at the time of HIV seroconversion. Neurology 39(5) 747-748... 

Holmes EE, Arnott N, Vanderplank P et al (2008) Intra-neural administration of fractalkine attenuates neuropathic pain-related behaviour. J Neurochem 106 640-649 Huang DR, Shi ED, Jung S et al (2006) The neuronal chemokine CX3CL 1/fractalkine selectively recruits NK cells that modify experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis within the central nervous system. EASEB J 20 896-905... 

Finally, there is little or no clinical evidence that morphine causes psychological dependence or drug-seeking behaviour, tolerance or problematic respiratory depression in patients. These events simply do not occur when opioids are used to control pain. The reason is likely to be that the actions of morphine and the context of its use in a person in pain are neurobiologically quite different from the effects of opioids in street use. These actions of opioids are described in more detail in Chapter 23. 

Finally, as outlined above, descending monoamine systems, originating in the midbrain and brainstem that act through the spinal release of noradrenaline and 5-HT, modulate the spinal transmission of pain. Alphai adrenoceptors appear to be important in this role but it is unlikely that behavioural effects such as sedation can be separated from the analgesia. Since both noradrenaline and 5-HT are key transmitters in the control of mood and anxiety and yet also participate in the control of sensory events that lead to... 

One of the conspicuous resorcinols is HU-308 (362), which is a CB2-specific agonist this compound does not bind to CBi (if > 10 uM), but has a significant affinity for CB2 ( i = 22.7 nM) [226]. HU-308 elicited analgesic activity in a formalin-induced peripheral pain model and an anti-infiam-matory effect on arachidonic acid-induced ear inflammation, though it showed no activity in a tetrad of behavioural tests, which are linked to CNS activity (Table 6.34). 

The difference in opiate pharmacology between people with and without pain also applies to addiction. The drug-seeking behaviour synonymous with drug addiction does not occur in patients given opiates for pain relief in childbirth, operations or heart attacks (Porter and Jick, 1980). Clearly, drug addicts are not in pain, and it has consequently been argued that medical use of opiates does not produce addicts (McQuay, 2001). 

PAIN, B F and BROOM, D M. (1978). The effects of injected and surface-spread slurry on the intake and grazing behaviour of daily cows. Anim Prod. 26, 75-83. 

Dorsal raphe Main serotonin (5-HT)-containing neurons that project through the brain. Other raphe neurons project down the spinal cord where they act as a gating mechanism for pain perception from the periphery. Main activity is in the regulation of mood, anxiety, sexual behaviour, sleep. 

Physiological/ Pathological Effects Anxiety, depression Appetite, aggression Pain, sexual behaviour 7 Appetite, anxiety Mood V asoconstriction Appetite ... 

Opioid systems are intimately involved in the whole pleasure-pain modality (Bolles Fanselow, 1982) and affect conscious and unconscious behaviour. Though acutely painful stimuli may press urgently into consciousness, inhibitory modulators serve to remove pain from the conscious level allowing appropriate adaptive behaviour. Thus a soldier wounded in battle may feel no pain until removed from the front and potentially painful stimuli may pass unnoticed during the excitement of sporting activities (Melzack Wall, 1988). 

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