Out of line

Another way of interpreting absolute risk estimates is through the use of benchmarks or goals. Consider a company that operates 50 chemical process facilities. It is determined (through other, purely qualitative means) that Plant A has exhibited acceptable safety performance over the years. A QRA is performed on Plant A, and the absolute estimates are established as calibration points, or benchmarks, for the rest of the firm s facilities. Over the years, QRAs are performed on other facilities to aid in making decisions about safety maintenance and improvement. As these studies are completed, the results are carefully scrutinized against the benchmark facility. The frequency/consequence estimates are not the only results compared—the lists of major risk contributors, the statistical risk importance of safety systems, and other types of QRA results are also compared. As more and more facility results are accumulated, resources are allocated to any plant areas that are out of line with respect to the benchmark facility. 

A joint on an 8-in. line containing a hot solvent had to be remade. The two sides v ere 14-in. out of line. There was a crane in the plant at the time, so it was decided to use it to lift one of the lines slightly. The lifting strap pulled against a 14-in. branch and broke it off (Figure 1-11). 

Consider first the boiling points of HI, HBr, HQ, and HF. The last, hydrogen fluoride, is far out of line, boiling at 19.9°C instead of below —95°C as would be predicted by extrapolation from the other three. There is an even larger discordancy between the boiling point of HjO and the value we would predict from the trend suggested by HjTe, HjSe, and H2S. 

Out-of-Line Safety. A term descriptive of a method by which detonator safety or bore safety is attained. In the safe condition, one or more components of the fuze or booster expl train are in a non-aligned condition with respect to the other components, so that normal functioning cannot occur Ref OrdTechTerm (1962), 216-R... 

FIGURE 5.8 The boiling points of most of the molecular hydrides of the p-block elements show a smooth increase with molar mass in each group. However, three compounds—ammonia, water, and hydrogen fluoride are strikingly out of line. 

When investigating filling records, one occasionally stumbles across values that seem to be way out of line. Does such a value represent normal operation, or has some other mechanism taken over, such as the blocking of a filling nozzle, poor synchronization in a cutting operation, or delivery of improper material In order to rectify the situation and avoid it in the future, it is important that the probable cause can be assigned. 

The results appear to cluster around the values 101 with the first two and the last gel samples falling out of line. The technician reported this to his supervisor and the two thereupon decided to cast out bad results by recalculating the standard deviation for the seven remaining gel results, they easily demonstrated a big improvement in Sx (from 0.47 to 0.115) and confirmed the bad results as being really bad The outliers no longer hovered around I = 1.4. .. 2, but stuck out at / = 6. .. 8. 

Figure 4.49. Assay and content uniformity (CU) results for six batches of a tablet containing two drugs. One assay result falls completely out of line while there is general loss of component B during manufacturing.

However, it was pointed out that two other observations are out of line with the iron(I) formulation and more consistent with an iron(II)-porphyrin radical anion [290] (1) the low-intensity red-shifted Soret band in the UV-VIS spectrum with broad maxima in the a,(3-region compared to, for instance, Fe(TPP) in THF, is typical of a porphyrin radical, and (2) the bond lengths of the porphyrin core indicate population of the (antibonding) LUMO of the ligand (i.e., the presence of an extra electron in the re-system). The presence of porphyrin radical character in the electronic ground state was also inferred from the paramagnetic NMR-shifts of the pyrrole protons at the meso and p-carbon atoms [291]. 

Geldart (1970) showed a substantial distinction between bubble sizes in two dimensional and three dimensional beds. He used 128 pm river sand in a 30.8 cm round bed and a 68 1.27 cm rectangular cross section bed. The results, shown in Fig. 12, show that the bubbles in the three dimensional bed are larger. There were differences in the visible bubble flow rate at the same superficial velocity. Geldart ascribes the differences in bubble diameter to differences invisible bubble flow rate as well as to out-of-line coalescence in the three dimensional bed. 

The electron affinity of nitrogen is out of line with those of other atoms in the same period because it has a stable half-filled shell. 

Based on data provided by Fujita (1988). See also Matsui et al. (1985). Values differ from those of VanEtten et al. (1967a) in Table A5.1. Values for this substituent appear out of line. 

A commonly accepted point of view in the field of biology and related disciplinesphysiology, biochemistry, psychologyand in the applied fields of medicine, psychiatry, and social relations appears to be that humanity can be divided into two groups (1) the vast majority possess attributes which are within the normal range (2) a small minority possess attributes far enough out of line so that they should be considered deviates. This point of view is more often tacitly assumed than expressed and is illustrated by the fact that when an obstetrician can inform a mother that her newborn child is "normal in every way," everyone is happy but if the infant must be pronounced abnormal, everyone concerned is distressed. 

Thirdly, investigators not infrequently tend to throw out data as spurious when the results are too diverse or too far removed from what was expected. Many would feel perfectly justified in throwing out one analysis out of fifty if it appeared out of line with the others, when actually, if our hypothesis is correct, this one value might be a wholly valid and potentially significant one. 

An exaggerated dependence on the idea of normality may lead one to reason in the following fashion When measurements are made with respect to a well, normal individual, every item is judged to be normal because the individual is well and normal nothing is wrong with him, and so none of his measurements can be off standard. If any of his measurements appear to be out of line, they are misrepresenting his case, because he is normal. The range of normality will have to be extended to include his case. 

Three critical points can be made in this analysis. The first one is located at the "thorough look Instruction. This examination in reality involves a critical analysis of the experimental protocol and the data produced from it. For example, it was quite evident in collecting the standards data from DATASET D that values were well out of line with previous determinations. See other DATASETS, especially DATASET E in the Appendix, for confirmation of this idea. The second critical point is at the "Preparation of the problem Instruction. In this case hetero-scedasticity must be removed before submitting the data to regression analysis. Weighted least squares of several types (11) and power transformations (10) can be used. The third critical point... 

T hope 1 wasn t out of line with my eomment, I said, aware that I was probably again speaking out of turn. 

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