Number of animals

Oral adrninistration of vacciaes may be ineffective as many vacciaes are deactivated in the digestive tract of the animals the vacciaes are intended to protect. Dip treatment by which the vacciaes enter the animals through diffusion from the water are not generally as effective as injection but can be used to vaccinate large numbers of animals in short periods of time. 

Eats and oils from a number of animal and vegetable sources are the feedstocks for the manufacture of natural higher alcohols. These materials consist of triglycerides glycerol esterified with three moles of a fatty acid. The alcohol is manufactured by reduction of the fatty acid functional group. A small amount of natural alcohol is also obtained commercially by saponification of natural wax esters of the higher alcohols, such as wool grease. 

Chronic Toxicity. The effects of repeated oral exposure to phthalates for periods ranging from a few days to 2 years have been studied in a number of animal species including rats, mice, hamsters, guinea pigs, ferrets, and dogs (37). 

There should be sufficientiy large numbers of animals to allow a quantitative determination of the average response and the range of responses, including the demonstration of hypersensitive populations. When objective procedures are undertaken, these should be sufficient to allow vaUd statistical comparison to be made between treated and control groups. 

There is some evidence from a number of animal species that phytoestrogen consumption can interfere with reproductive development and function. ... 

Providing quantitative estimates of NHj emissions is necessarily rather uncertain, because of the wide range of variability in the sources as well as in factors affecting the emission rate. In the case of livestock emissions, the obvious scaling parameter is the number of animals in a particular area and emissions estimates... 

The nature of the conditions of intensive production, however, can increase the risk of diseases and infections which can spread very rapidly and devastate large numbers of animals." Thus it is common practice for producers of poultry to add coccidiostats to their diets and vaccines to their drinking water in order to prevent coccidiosis and other infectious diseases such as bronchitis and Newcastle disease. A similar problem exists for intensively reared fish, where it is necessary to add antibiotics to their diets. A problem with intensively reared fish is that their diet is added directly into the water in which they live thus drugs and other additives in the diet are relatively easily dispersed into the local environment of fish farms, where they can increase bacterial resistance and also cause problems such as algal blooms. 

Casein is a protein found in a number of animal and vegetable materials but only one source is of commercial interest, cow s skimmed milk. The amount of casein in milk will vary but a typical analysis of cow s milk is ... 

Comment When using data for LOELs, LOAELs, NOELs, or NOAELs, it is important to be aware of their limitations. As discussed in the chapter, statistical uncertainty exists in the determination of these parameters due to the limited number of animals used in the studies to determine the values. However, any toxic effect might be used for the NOAEL and LOAEL so long as it is the most sensitive toxic effect and considered like it to occur in humans. 

Approximate number of animals to be treated or quantities of drug to be shipped. 

Three studies examined the effects of endosulfan exposure on reproductive performance in rats. Consumption of estimated doses of endosulfan of up to 9 and 8 mg/kg/day by male and female rats, respectively, for 2 weeks prior to mating and continued consumption throughout gestation resulted in no adverse effect on mating performance, pregnancy rate, or gestation (Hoechst 1982). This study is limited in that the actual intake of test material was quantified only during the first 2 weeks of exposure, and a relatively small number of animals was used. Similarly, consumption of 5 mg/kg/day by male rats and... 

Apart from the scientific advantages offered by this new technology, it has also been welcomed by organizations seeking a reduction in the number of animals used in toxicity testing (see Chapter 15, Section 15.6, and Walker 1998b). 

Figure 3. Mortality of mice 24 hr after i.p. injection of 1 x 10" mg/kg palytoxin in the presence of pre-immune serum from Rabbit 633 undiluted immune serum, 10% immune serum, and 1% immune serum. Numbers above bars represent the number of animals dead and the number tested. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. 8. Copyright 1987 Pergamon Press.)...

The toxicity of palytoxin in sue unanesthetized animal species was established as well as the toxicity of the toxin when administered by various routes. Tables I and II show the doses and numbers of animals used in this phase of the study. 

Helical symmetry was thought at one time to exist only in plant viruses. It is now known, however, to occur in a number of animal virus particles. The influenza and mumps viruses, for example, which were first seen in early electron micrographs as roughly spherical particles, have now been observed as enveloped particles within the envelope, the capsids themselves are helically symmetrical and appear similar to the rods of TMV, except that they are more flexible and are wound like coils of rope in the centre of the particle. 

This procedure is limited by the number of animals that can be used and by the strictures imposed by a humane approach. HBV has not yet been transmitted to nonprimate animals. 

Index for anti-inflammatory activity. Model acute inflammation, method Carragennan induced edema, test animal albino rats, number of animals per group 6, route of administration oral, standard phenylbutazone (100 mgkg ), test compounds lOOmgkg ... 

Differences in experimental design or in numbers of animals and doses tested may account for this discrepancy. In our experiments, symmetrical transfer did not occur between MDMA and amphetamine. 

Automatic metering devices or medication proportioners are used for treating large numbers of animals. The powder medication is dissolved at the time of administration into water to make a stock solution, which is proportioned into the drinking water system as the water is consumed by the animals. The common dilution in the United States is one fluid ounce of stock solution (or liquid drug concentrate) to 127 ounces of water, producing a one fluid ounce per gallon dilution. 

Excretion of hydrogen sulfide was documented after dermal exposure in rabbits. Trunk fiir of rabbits was clipped and left intact or abraded for exposure to hydrogen sulfide gas (unknown concentrations) for 1.5-2 hours the animals then breathed clean air (Laug and Draize 1942). Evidence for the excretion of hydrogen sulfide by the rabbits was a sulfide reaction of the expired air with lead acetate paper (Laug and Draize 1942). Sulfides in the expired air were noted in one rabbit with intact skin after 7 minutes of exposure. This study was limited by the lack of measurement of exposure concentrations and the small number of animals used. 

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