Morphological analysis methods available

A major application of solid state NMR is the study of polymer morphology. Information potentially available includes the amount and orientation of crystalline phases in semi-crystalline polymers and the domain sizes in phase-separated polymeric systems. For the determination of crystallinity, a common method is to measure Ti relaxation in NMR (or NMR for deuterated polymers). The relaxation data can often be resolved into two (or more) components, which may correspond to magnetization arising from crystalline and amorphous phases (11-15,130-134). The development of the maximum entropy regularization method has permitted more facile and less subjective analysis of the data (143). In optimal cases, multiple components can be identified. 

In this chapter, the main influences of temperature on the products obtained by hard tissues thermal processing are presented, highhghting the approaches and methods available nowadays. The main thermal analysis methods used to trace/identify the transformations that occur with the increase of the fabrication temperature are also emphasized. The correlation of such results with ones provided by complementary investigation methods, such as scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy or X-ray diffraction, can enable a complex and insightful research on the evolution of the morphology and structure of hard tissues when subjected to heat-treatments. In the final part, results obtained for thermally treated bone samples are presented and an ample comparative discussion is carried out with respect to other reported studies. 

Probably the most extensive use of particle morphology and microscopy has been in the area of chemical microscopy. With this approach, derivatives of the analyte species are prepared, crystallized, and identified through the morphological characteristics of these derivatives [21]. Most of these applications have been superseded by modem methods of analysis, but the microscopic method can still be used by skilled practitioners for the study of trace quantities of analyte. The literature developed during the heyday of chemical microscopy is too large to be reviewed here, but advances in the field are still chronicled in the Annual Reviews issue of Analytical Chemistry [22]. A substantial review of the optical characteristics of organic compounds is available [23]. 

We have tried to relate the performance of a deteriorated membrane to its structure by classical methods. Recent advancement in the techniques of morphological and physicochemical analyses is remarkable, and is much contributing to better understanding of the membrane behaviour. We have now various types of RO membranes made of synthetic polymers available, and most these analytical procedures are applicable for the analysis of these membranes. Investigations on the membrane structures are much more required, and they will reveal the relations between materials and structure, and structure and performance. We believe these Investigations will contribute to development not only in the membrane Itself, but in the application of the membrane. We hope the progress of membrane science will expand RO marke t. 

Vegetation has been classified into a number of reaction types (Ernst, 1993). Within the group of plants that react to their environment (reactors), those with visible (or overt) reactions can be distinguished from those with non-visible (or covert) reactions. In the case of geobotany as defined by Ernst (1993), visibility means to the unaided human eye, that is colour, morphology, presence, abundance or absence of species. Cole has pointed out (Cole and Smith, 1984) that is was not until about 1945, when rapid routine methods of analysis for large numbers of samples became available, that biogeochemistry, that is the study of the chemical composition of plants from various habitats, was used for mineral exploration in many parts of the world. 

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