Milk toxin

It had been found by Allcroft71 that certain isolated extracts of the milk produced by lactating cattle that had been fed sublethal levels of the aflatoxins, induced the formation of the liver lesions reminiscent of aflatoxicosis72,73. The toxins were isolated and called the milk toxins , which were later redesignated as the aflatoxins 18,74,75). Indeed, it was also demonstrated that the milk toxins were present in the original Aspergillus flavus mold as minor components72. ... 

The structures of the milk toxins were determined after their isolation from sheep urine74,76 and milk72, 77. The two constituents were separated, and labelled aflatoxin Mj(/5) (less polar) and aflatoxin M2(14) (more polar). The molecular formula of aflatoxin Mj(/2) was determined as C17H1207 i.e. containing one more oxygen atom than aflatoxin Bj(i). The infrared spectrum (i 3 3425, 1760,... 

The desirability of having relatively copious quantities of the milk toxins for studies regarding their carcinogenicity, prompted Buchi and Weinreb139, 145 to develop a total synthesis of these metabolites. Notably, the only difference between aflatoxin Mi (13) and aflatoxin Bj (1) is the presence of the tertiary and benzylic hydroxyl functionality at C-14. Unfortunately, the methodologies utilized in the constructions of the toxins previously discussed are not applicable to this problem in that they inherently do not contain the necessary provisions for the initial presence, or the delayed introduction, of this C-14 hydroxyl. Therefore, a radically different approach was essential, which would provide for this contingency. 

Allcroft, R., Rogers, H., Lewis, G., Nabney, J., and Best, P. E. (1966). Metabolism of aflatoxin in sheep Excretion of the milk toxin. Nature London) 209, 154-155. 

While the aflatoxins B and G are major compounds of the fungus Aspergillus flavus, there are also minor aflatoxin constituents from this organism, e.g. hydroxylated derivatives of aflatoxin Bi (1) and B2 (2), the so-called milk-toxins . Ml (5) and M2 (6), which bear a hydroxy group at the junction of the two furan rings 19). They are called mOk toxins , because they are metabolites of aflatoxin Bi (1) and B2 (2), formed when cows get fed with contaminated foodstuffs. The toxins are then contained in the cow s milk. Other aflatoxins have a hydroxy group instead of... 

Biichi G, Weinreb SM (1969) The Total Synthesis of Racemic Aflatoxin-Ml (Milk Toxin). J Am Chem Soc 91 5408... 

Proper refrigeration prevents the growth of some microorganisms, such as Salmonella and the production of toxins, such as Staphylococcus aureus. The growth of bacteria Tscherichia coli and Bacillus cereus is substantially checked by proper cooling and handling of milk. Table 14 Hsts diseases transmitted by cows to humans. Pasteurization is the best means of prevention. 

Meat, milk, and animal products from animals affected or killed by toxins should be destroyed. 

Lactarius species are milk -containing mushrooms. Poisonous Lactarius are generally found in species with white latex. After eating large quantities of these mushrooms, symptoms such as vomiting, profuse diarrhea, and sweating will occur fifteen minutes to one hour after the meal. The nature of the toxin is unknown. 

Botulism also affects animals, where intoxication is caused by C. botulinum types C and D. A bovine disease visceral botulism was reported in Germany (Bohnel et al., 2001). It was caused by a long-lasting exposure to low quantities of botulin toxin that interfered with the neurological control of intestinal physiology. Visceral botulism in cows may pose a health risk for milk consumers, although to date there are no precise data on how serious the problem is (Cobb et al., 2002). 

Lactation It is not known whether this drug is excreted in breast milk. Exercise caution when botulinum toxin type A is administered to a nursing woman. 

This NRL sensor was used for fhe rapid detection of Campylobacter jejuni and small toxins, including several mycotoxins [ochratoxin A, fumonisin B, aflafoxin Bi, and deoxynivalenol (DON)] from food pro-ducfs (Ngundi et ah, 2005, 2006 Sapsford et ah, 2006). They used a sandwich immunoassay formaf fo detect C. jejuni in milk and yogurt and a competitive immunoassay format to detect the mycotoxins. 

Reinders, R. D., Bama, A., Lipman, L. J. A., and Bijker, P. G. H. (2002). Comparison of the sensitivity of manual and automated immunomagnetic separation methods for detection of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli 0157 H7 in milk. J. Appl. Microbiol. 92,1015-1020. 

Free secretatory component is abundant in breast milk and may on its own block epithelial adhesion of, and thereby limit infection by enterotoxigenic . coli (de Araujo and Giugliano, 2001), Salmonella typhimurium (Bessler et ah, 2006), C. difficile toxin A (Dallas and Rolfe, 1998), and pneumococcus (Hammerschmidt et ah, 1997). 

Dallas, S. D., and Rolfe, R. D. (1998). Binding of Clostridium difficile toxin A to human milk secretory component. /. Med. Microbiol. 47, 879-888. 

Newburg, D. S., Ruiz-Palacios, G. M., Altaye, M., Chaturvedi, P., Guerrero, M. L., Meinzen-Derr, J. K., and Morrow, A. L. (2004). Human milk alphal,2-linked fucosylated oligosaccharides decrease risk of diarrhea due to stable toxin of E. coli in breastfed infants. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 554, 457-461. 

Intravenous silymarin has been demonstrated to lower mortality from Amanita mushroom poisonings, but this formulation is available only in Europe. Animal studies have demonstrated hepatic protection against alcohol, acetaminophen, and mushroom toxins and protection against hepatic fibrosis with bile duct occlusion. There is also evidence of silybin protecting against cis-platin-induced nephrotoxicity in rats. It is not yet clear whether milk thistle extract offers any renal protection to humans. 

In animal models, milk thistle purportedly limits hepatic injury associated with a variety of toxins, including Amanita mushrooms, galactosamine, carbon tetrachloride, acetaminophen, radiation, cold ischemia, and ethanol. In vitro studies and some in vivo studies demonstrate that silymarin reduces lipid peroxidation, scavenges free radicals, and enhances glutathione and superoxide dismutase levels. This may contribute to membrane stabilization and reduce toxin entry. 

Although milk thistle has not been confirmed as an antidote following acute exposure to liver toxins in humans, parenteral silybin is nevertheless marketed and used in Europe as an antidote in Amanita phalloides mushroom poisoning. This use is based on favorable outcomes reported in case-control studies. 

Euphorbia humifusa Willd. Deng Qing Cao (Wolf s milk) (aerial part) Camphol, euphorbon, gallic acid.48 Antibacterial, detoxicant against diphtheria toxin. 

Immunotechniques have recently been developed to detect food contaminants, e.g., toxins, growth hormone, antibiotics, pesticides, and herbicides. Penicillin (62) in milk, aflatoxins and mycotoxins (63, 64, 65) in milk, cheeses, yogurt, corn have been detected by immunosensors. Characteristics of protein and receptors in or on the cell surface were used in detecting pathogens such as Listeria and Salmonella by immunosensors (11, 66). The principle of immunosensors has also been applied in pesticide determinations (67, 68). 

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