Menopause Menstrual cycle

Mendelian genetics Meningitis Menopause Menstrual cycle Mercurous chloride Mercury (element)... 

Menopause is determined retrospectively after 12 consecutive months of amenorrhea. FSH on day 2 or 3 of the menstrual cycle greater than 10 to 12 international units/L suggests presence of perimenopause. 

A variety of kinds of evidence have linked emotional behavior to hormones. Two conditions, the menstrual cycle and menopause, have been the focus of a great deal of research on human behavior. In addition, gender differences in the prevalence of mental illnesses have been used as indirect evidence for possible hormonal effects on emotional disorders. For example, depression is more common in women than in men. In contrast, a pubertal onset of schizophrenia is more common in males than females (Hafner, et al., 1993), although the lifetime occurrence of schizophrenia is approximately equal in men and women (Seeman, 1996). Effects of hormones on emotional lability in men are described above in the context of aggression. 

For reasons that are not entirely clear, insomnia is also more common in women than men. There are particular times when a woman is especially vulnerable to insomnia, including pregnancy, the transition into menopause, and the premenstrual phase of the menstrual cycle. This, of course, suggests that it is changes in the female reproductive system that somehow alter sleep. Depression and anxiety are also more common in women at these times, and insomnia is a common symptom of these psychiatric illnesses. 

The beginning of menopause is marked by the last menstrual cycle. This is the result of declining ovarian func-... 

The corpus luteum arises from the ruptured follicle and secretes progesterone, which has an important role in the estrous or menstrual cycle. Luteal progesterone is also required to maintain early pregnancy in most mammalian species, including humans (Csapo Pulkkinen, 1978). Therefore, establishment and maintenance of normal corpora luteaare essential for normal reproductive function. However, with the exception of evaluations to establish their presence or absence, these structures are not evaluated in routine testing. Increased rates of follicular atresia and oocyte toxicity may lead to premature menopause in humans. Altered follicular development, failure to ovulate or altered corpus luteum formation and function can disrupt cyclicity, reduce fertility and interfere with normal sexual behaviour. Therefore, significant increases in the rate of follicular atresia, evidence of oocyte toxicity, interference with ovulation or altered corpus luteum formation or function should be considered adverse effects. 

A loss of primary oocytes will irreversibly affect a woman s fecundity, but this is difficult to measure directly. Reproductive dysfunction can be studied by the evaluation of irregularities of menstrual cycles and onset of menarche and menopause. However, menstrual cyclicity and onset of menopause and menarche are affected by many parameters, such as age, genetics, nutritional status, stress, exercise, certain drugs and the use of contraceptives that alter endocrine feedback. The length of the menstrual cycle, particularly the follicular phase (before ovulation), can vary between individuals and may make it difficult to measure significant effects in groups of women (Burch et al., 1967 Treloar et al., 1967). 

In humans high blood levels of penicillin, sufficient to be therapeutic, were demonstrated following insertion of a vaginal suppository near the end of the menstrual cycle and during menopause. In contrast, absorption was shown to be somewhat diminished during estms and late pregnancy. 

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