Membranes classification

The membrane classification scheme described above works fairly well. However, a major membrane preparation technique, phase separation, also known as phase inversion, is used to make both isotropic and anisotropic membranes. This technique is covered under anisotropic membranes. 

In this chapter, we will introduce fundamental concepts of the membrane and membrane-separation processes, such as membrane definition, membrane classification, membrane formation, module configuration, transport mechanism, system design, and cost evaluation. Four widely used membrane separation processes in water and wastewater treatment, namely, microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration (UF), nanofiltrafion (NF), and reverse osmosis (RO), will be discussed in detail. The issue of membrane foufing together with its solutions will be addressed. Several examples will be given to illustrate the processes. 

FIGURE 26.2 Membrane classification and cutoff as per pore size. 

Pore diameter (nm) Material Classification Membrane Classification Transport Mechanism(s)... 

A further membrane classification is based on the separation mechanism. There are three separation mechanisms depending on specific properties of the components [11] ... 

Membrane classification can be done according to several viewpoints. A major division can be made between biological and synthetic membranes. Biological membranes are semi-permeable barriers that separate either the inside from the outside of the cell, or enclose internal cell structures, but these will not be addressed in this work. Commonly used membranes in separation or bioconversion processes are made of synthetic polymers or ceramics (Table 4). 

Because membranes appHcable to diverse separation problems are often made by the same general techniques, classification by end use appHcation or preparation method is difficult. The first part of this section is, therefore, organized by membrane stmcture preparation methods are described for symmetrical membranes, asymmetric membranes, ceramic and metal membranes, and Hquid membranes. The production of hollow-fine fiber membranes and membrane modules is then covered. Symmetrical membranes have a uniform stmcture throughout such membranes can be either dense films or microporous. 

Processes and/or unit operations that fall under this classification include adsorption, ion exchange, stripping, chemical oxidation, and membrane separations. All of these are more expensive than biological treatment but are used for removal of pollutants that are not easily removed by biomass. Often these are utilized in series with biologic treatment but sometimes they are used as stand-alone processes. 

Cytochrome c oxidase contains two, or possibly three, copper atoms referred to as Cua and Cub since they do not fit into the usual classification. The former (possibly a dimer) is situated outside the mitochondrial membrane, whereas the latter is associated with an iron atom within the membrane. Both have electron transfer functions but details are as yet unclear. 

Table 16.1. Classification of membrane separation processes for liquid systems...

Industrial membrane processes may be classified according to the size range of materials that they are to separate and the driving force used in separation. There is always a degree of arbitrariness about such classifications, and the distinctions that are typically drawn. Table 16.1 presents classification of membrane separation processes for liquid systems. 

More than 50 proteins have been discovered in the cytosol of nonmuscle cells that bind to actin and affect the assembly and disassembly of actin filaments or the cross-linking of actin filaments with each other, with other filamentous components of the cytoskeleton, or with the plasma membrane. Collectively, these are known as actin-binding proteins (ABPs). Their mechanisms of actions are complex and are subject to regulation by specific binding affinities to actin and other molecules, cooperation or competition with other ABPs, local changes in the concentrations of ions in the cytosol, and physical forces (Way and Weeds, 1990). Classifications of ABPs have been proposed that are based on their site of binding to actin and on their molecular structure and function (Pollard and Cooper, 1986 Herrmann, 1989 Pollard et al., 1994). These include the following ... 

These two basic mechanisms could provide a further classification for NTs, namely fast and slow acting, although one NT can work through both mechanisms using different receptors. The slow effects can also range from many milliseconds to seconds, minutes, hours or even to include longer trophic influences. What will become clear is that while one NT can modify a number of different membrane ion currents through different mechanisms and receptors, one current can also be affected by a number of different NTs. The control of neuronal excitability is discussed in more detail in Chapter 2. 

Other ion channels are closed at rest, but may be opened by a change in membrane potential, by intracellular messengers such as Ca + ions, or by neurotransmitters. These are responsible for the active signalling properties of nerve cells and are discussed below (see Hille 1992, for a comprehensive account). A large number of ion channels have now been cloned. This chapter concerns function, rather than structure, and hence does not systematically follow the structural classification. 

Classification of sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum (SERCA) and surface membrane (PMCA) Ca -ATPases... 

Markers on the cell surface or membrane of the lymphoblast can be used to classify ALL. Among the early classification system was the FAB scheme, which was based purely on morphology and cytochemistry. This system considered nuclear appearance and degree of differentiation. This is no longer used, and the current classification of acute leukemias is based on features that can be identified only by immunologic and molecular analyses.3... 

Fig. 12 Illustration of the Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS), which classifies drug absorption potential on the basis of aqueous solubility or membrane permeability. (Copyright 2000 Saguaro Technical Press, Inc., used with permission.)...

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