Knowledge of results

One means of encouraging motivation is to provide information about performance while completing a task, what is known as knowledge of results. Wilkinson (64) was one of the first researchers to point out the positive effect of knowledge of results on performance. More recent studies have also supported the positive effect of knowledge of results on performance in sleep deprivation... 

Wilkinson R. Interaction of lack of sleep with knowledge of results, repeated testing and individual differences. J Exp Psychol 1961 62 263-271. 

Steyvers FJJM. The influence of sleep deprivation and knowledge of results on perceptual encoding. Acta Psychol 1987, 66 173-187. 

Teather, D. C. B., and Marchant, H. (1974), Learning from Film with Particular Reference to the Effects of Cueing, Questioning, and Knowledge of Results, Programmed Learning and Educational Technology, Vol. 11, pp. iVl- iTl. 

Feedback is knowledge of results. Feedback is an essential ingredient in learning. Instmctors must reinforce correct behavior to greatly enhance knowledge of results. People need to know if they perform tasks correcdy and safely. They also need to know if they perform tasks incorrectly. Safe behavior requires feedback and reinforcement. For example, feedback on wearing of personal protective equipment, a safe behavior, helps gain user cooperation. 

Give trainees knowledge of results. Trainees need to know how they are doing. It is better to evaluate trainees in small increments and give them results of evaluations, rather than delay evaluation and results. 

Posting provides everyone with knowledge of results. No one knows what the percent safe behavior is in various areas without behavioral sampling, tracking, and posting. This awareness of risky behavior and trends is a beginning step toward improvement. 

Nonfinancial incentives can be such things as the use of praise, knowledge of results (output), competition, experience of progress, experience of achievement, or granting a request. Some of the most powerful motivators are achievement, recognition, a person s work or task, responsibility, and growth potential. 

Provide immediate feedback (knowledge of results). As we practice, we need to know as soon as possible if we are correct. Practicing a task incorrectly can lead to harmful patterns. Praising the employees for correct actions enhances motivation and encourages formation of desirable habits. 

Task and equipment characteristics such as perceptual, anticipatory, decision-making and motor requirements, feedback and knowledge of results, man-machine interface. 

Using this concept, Burdett developed a method in 1955 to obtain the concentrations in mono-, di- and polynuclear aromatics in gas oils from the absorbances measured at 197, 220 and 260 nm, with the condition that sulfur content be less than 1%. Knowledge of the average molecular weight enables the calculation of weight per cent from mole per cent. As with all methods based on statistical sampling from a population, this method is applicable only in the region used in the study extrapolation is not advised and usually leads to erroneous results. 

Calculational methods. Associating the analysis, the knowledge of the property-structure relationships, and the calculation methods has made possible the replacement of costly and arduous test methods by quicker tests whose results are linked by calculations to the characteristic under study. Some examples are the cetane number, in some cases, the octane number, or the characteristics of LPG (refer to Chapter 3). 

Because (k) = (k + G), a knowledge of (k) within a given volume called the Brillouin zone is sufficient to detennine (k) for all k. In one dimension, G = Imld where d is the lattice spacing between atoms. In this case, E k) is known once k is detennined for -%ld < k < %ld. (For example, m the Kronig-Peimey model (fignre Al.3.6). d = a + b and/rwas defined only to within a vector 2nl a + b).) In tlnee dimensions, this subspace can result in complex polyhedrons for the Brillouin zone. 

One of the flexibilities of eomputer simulation is that it is possible to define the themiodynamie eonditions eorresponding to one of many statistieal ensembles, eaeh of whieh may be most suitable for the purpose of the study. A knowledge of the underlying statistieal meehanies is essential in the design of eorreet simulation methods, and in the analysis of simulation results. Flere we deseribe two of the most eommoir statistieal ensembles, but examples of the use of other ensembles will appear later in the ehapter. 

Most database users do not know how the data are organized in a database system (DBS) they depend solely on the application programs. This is sufficient for most database searches where users can receive large amounts of results quickly and easily, e.g., on literature or other information. Nevertheless, a basic knowledge on where and how to find deeper or more detailed information is quite useful. Due to their complex nature, comprehensive searches (e.g., for processes or patents) are not recommended for beginners. However, most local (in-house), online, and CD-ROM databases provide extensive tutorials and help functions that are specific to the database, and that give a substantial introduction into database searching. 

To our knowledge, the results presented in this chapter provide the first example of enantioselective Lewis-acid catalysis of an organic reaction in water. This discovery opens the possibility of employing the knowledge and techniques from aqueous coordination chemistry in enantioselective catalysis. This work represents an interface of two disciplines hitherto not strongly connected. 

The development of the structural theory of the atom was the result of advances made by physics. In the 1920s, the physical chemist Langmuir (Nobel Prize in chemistry 1932) wrote, The problem of the structure of atoms has been attacked mainly by physicists who have given little consideration to the chemical properties which must be explained by a theory of atomic structure. The vast store of knowledge of chemical properties and relationship, such as summarized by the Periodic Table, should serve as a better foundation for a theory of atomic structure than the relativity meager experimental data along purely physical lines. ... 

Recent years have witnessed an increase in the number of people using computational chemistry. Many of these newcomers are part-time theoreticians who work on other aspects of chemistry the rest of the time. This increase has been facilitated by the development of computer software that is increasingly easy to use. It is now so easy to do computational chemistry that calculations can be performed with no knowledge of the underlying principles. As a result, many people do not understand even the most basic concepts involved in a calculation. Their work, as a result, is largely unfocused and often third-rate. 

Quantum mechanics gives a mathematical description of the behavior of electrons that has never been found to be wrong. However, the quantum mechanical equations have never been solved exactly for any chemical system other than the hydrogen atom. Thus, the entire held of computational chemistry is built around approximate solutions. Some of these solutions are very crude and others are expected to be more accurate than any experiment that has yet been conducted. There are several implications of this situation. First, computational chemists require a knowledge of each approximation being used and how accurate the results are expected to be. Second, obtaining very accurate results requires extremely powerful computers. Third, if the equations can be solved analytically, much of the work now done on supercomputers could be performed faster and more accurately on a PC. 

Curiously enough, bulky substituents on nitrogen increase this reactivity towards methyl iodide (119). This has been related to a steric decompression of the thiocarbonyl group in the transition state. Furthermore, knowledge of the ratio of conformers in the starting 4-alkyl-3-i-Pr-A-4-thiazoline-2-thiones and in the resulting 4-alkyl-3-i-Pr-2-methylthiothi-azolium iodides combined with a Winstein-Holness treatment of the kinetic data indicates that in the transition state, the thiocarbonyl bond is approximately 65% along the reaction coordinate from the initial state... 

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