Isobutylene oxide polymerization

In a review article Eastham (12) reports that treatment of isobutylene oxide with borontrifluoride leads to dimer without any polymer but the reaction conditions were not mentioned. On the other hand, Vandenberg (13) described the polymerization of the same monomer with borontrifluoride to give 60% of polymer containing substantial amounts (ca. 27%) of high boiling volatiles which were supposed to be a mixture of cyclic oligomers. 

The enthalpy of polymerization of 3- and 4-membered rings is so much higher than the entropy factor that substitution does not significantly reduce their polymerizability. Disubstituted oxiranes (e.g., isobutylene oxide) or oxetanes (3,3-dimethyloxetane) still polymerize practically irreversibly. Substitution may prohibit polymerization of 5-membered monomers, however. 

It has been shown in the previous sections that at least the polymerization of cyclic ethers, sulfides and amines proceeds via onium ions. The large majority of authors have agreed on this point (the mechanism of propagation of disubstituted cyclic ethers like isobutylene oxide is, however, still in dispute) . ... 

There is, however, still some doubt whether the polymerization of 2,2-dimethyloxirane (isobutylene oxide) also proceeds by Sn2 attadc. This monomer is the best candidate for the SnI mechanism of propagation, because the generated dimethylcarbenium ion would be highly stabilized by the inductive effect ... 

In the usual SjsjZ (A 2) mechanism, the reaction of the water molecule with the protonated compound is rate determining, while in the pure S l (A 1) mechanism, the unimolecular opening of the protonated ring is rate determining. Discussing the mechanism of the polymerization of isobutylene oxide it was eventually concluded that stereochemical studies would be needed to distinguish between these possibilities. 

With further shift into the direction of still more advanced breaking of the bond within active species this borderline Sn2 mechanism could eventually convert into the Sjql mechanism. This should be promoted by the presence of the stabilizing group located closely to the carbe-nium ion (like in cyclic acetals polymerization) and/or high ring strain (like in the three membered rings). Indeed, contribution of Sj l mechanism in both cases has been postulated for polymerization of 1,3-dioxolane and isobutylene oxide but there is still no clear-cut evidence for its operation. 

Similar results were obtained by Vandenberg2A). Thus, the polymerization of isobutylene oxide with BF3 (5 mol %) at 0 °C after 1 hr. gave 3 % of ether insoluble protic acids as initiators [SnCl4, BF O(C2H5)2, H0S02CF3] and found a 100% conversion to cyclic oligomers with n = 2-5 28). 

Among new initiators for the polymerization of propylene oxide, ethylene oxide, 1-butene oxide, and isobutylene oxide are zinc hexacyanocobaltate [54] and aluminum porphyrin [55]. 

Uses Copolymerized with methyl acrylate, methyl methacrylate, vinyl acetate, vinyl chloride, or 1,1-dichloroethylene to produce acrylic and modacrylic fibers and high-strength fibers ABS (acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene) and acrylonitrile-styrene copolymers nitrile rubber cyano-ethylation of cotton synthetic soil block (acrylonitrile polymerized in wood pulp) manufacture of adhesives organic synthesis grain fumigant pesticide monomer for a semi-conductive polymer that can be used similar to inorganic oxide catalysts in dehydrogenation of tert-butyl alcohol to isobutylene and water pharmaceuticals antioxidants dyes and surfactants. 

It is generally agreed that alkenyl hydroperoxides are primary products in the liquid-phase oxidation of olefins. Kamneva and Panfilova (8) believe the dimeric and trimeric dialkyl peroxides they obtained from the oxidation of cyclohexene at 35° to 40° to be secondary products resulting from cyclohexene hydroperoxide. But Van Sickle and co-workers (20) report that, The abstraction/addition ratio is nearly independent of temperature in oxidation of isobutylene and cycloheptene and of solvent changes in oxidations of cyclopentene, tetramethylethylene, and cyclooctene. They interpret these results to support a branching mechanism which gives rise to alkenyl hydroperoxide and polymeric dialkyl peroxide, both as primary oxidation products. This interpretation has been well accepted (7, 13). Brill s (4) and our results show that acyclic alkenyl hydroperoxides decompose extensively at temperatures above 100°C. to complicate the reaction kinetics and mechanistic interpretations. A simplified reaction scheme is outlined below. 

Pseudoliquid-phase catalysis (bulk type I catalysis) was reported in 1979, and bulk type II behavior in 1983. In the 1980s, several new large-scale industrial processes started in Japan based on applications of heteropoly catalysts that had been described before (5, 6, 72) namely, oxidation of methacro-lein (1982), hydration of isobutylene (1984), hydration of n-butene (1985), and polymerization of tetrahydrofuran (1987). In addition, there are a few small- to medium-scale processes (9, 10). Thus the level of research activity in heteropoly catalysis is very high and growing rapidly. 

MC MDI MEKP MF MMA MPEG MPF NBR NDI NR OPET OPP OSA PA PAEK PAI PAN PB PBAN PBI PBN PBS PBT PC PCD PCT PCTFE PE PEC PEG PEI PEK PEN PES PET PF PFA PI PIBI PMDI PMMA PMP PO PP PPA PPC PPO PPS PPSU Methyl cellulose Methylene diphenylene diisocyanate Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide Melamine formaldehyde Methyl methacrylate Polyethylene glycol monomethyl ether Melamine-phenol-formaldehyde Nitrile butyl rubber Naphthalene diisocyanate Natural rubber Oriented polyethylene terephthalate Oriented polypropylene Olefin-modified styrene-acrylonitrile Polyamide Poly(aryl ether-ketone) Poly(amide-imide) Polyacrylonitrile Polybutylene Poly(butadiene-acrylonitrile) Polybenzimidazole Polybutylene naphthalate Poly(butadiene-styrene) Poly(butylene terephthalate) Polycarbonate Polycarbodiimide Poly(cyclohexylene-dimethylene terephthalate) Polychlorotrifluoroethylene Polyethylene Chlorinated polyethylene Poly(ethylene glycol) Poly(ether-imide) Poly(ether-ketone) Polyethylene naphthalate Polyether sulfone Polyethylene terephthalate Phenol-formaldehyde copolymer Perfluoroalkoxy resin Polyimide Poly(isobutylene), Butyl rubber Polymeric methylene diphenylene diisocyanate Poly(methyl methacrylate) Poly(methylpentene) Polyolefins Polypropylene Polyphthalamide Chlorinated polypropylene Poly(phenylene oxide) Poly(phenylene sulfide) Poly(phenylene sulfone)... 

Poly(isobutylene) dicarboxylic acid was prepared by oxidation of the copolymer of isobutylene with a diene 53,54). The most efficient oxidizing agent was the system KMn04-periodic acid. Oxidation of a copolymer of isobutylene and 2,3-dimethyl-butadiene afforded a polymeric bis-ketone54). 

The evidence in the case of styrene, where both modes of radiation-induced polymerization can be conveniently studied, is quite convincing that reduction of the concentration of water changes the predominating mode of propagation from purely free radical to essentially ionic. Evidence for an ionic propagation initiated by radiation has also been obtained in pure a-methylstyrene (3, 24), isobutylene (12, 32), cyclopenta-diene (5), / -pinene (2), 1,2-cyclohexene oxide (II), isobutyl vinyl ether (6), and nitroethylene (38), although the radical process in these monomers is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to study. 

The importance of isobutylene in the petrochemical industry is well recognized. Isobutylene is used on a large scale for the production of (i) methacrolein by direct oxidation, (ii) polyisobutylene by polymerization, (iii) synthetic rubber (a copolymer of isobutylene and isoprene), and (iv) methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE, a gasoline octane-number enhancer) by reaction with methanol. 

Fundamental studies directed toward the elucidation of the mechanism of olefin i.e.f isobutylene, polymerizations yielded a new method for the synthesis of novel linear and tri-arm star telechelic polymers and oligomers [1,2]. The synthesis involves the use of bi- or tri-functional initiator/transfer agents, so called inifers (binifers and trinifers), in conjunction with BCI3 coinitiator and isobutylene, and gives rise to polyisobutylenes carrying exactly two or three terminal -CH2-C(CH3)2Cl groups. These liquid telechelic polyisobutylene chlorides can be readily and quantitatively converted to telechelic polyisobutylene di- or tri-olefins [2,3] which in turn can quantitatively yield by hydroboration/oxidation telechelic polyisobutylene di- and triols [4,5]. 

In recent years, there have been significant developments in the field of living carbocationic polymerization (LCCP) of vinyl monomers, such as isobutylene (IB), styrene and its derivatives, and vinyl ethers, leading to a wide variety of functional polymers (for recent reviews see Refs. 1-4). Due to the attractive properties of polyisobutylene (PIB) available only by carbocationic polymerization, coupling this hydrophobic, thermally, oxidatively, and hydrolytically stable polymer with a low Tg to a variety of other chain segments is expected to result in new useful products. For instance, methacrylate-telechelic PIB (MA-PIB-MA) obtained by LCCP and subsequent chain end derivatization has been successfully used to synthesize novel amphiphilic networks by radical copolymerization of MA-PIB-MA with a variety of monomers, such as N,N-dimethylacrylamide and 2-trimethylsilyloxyethyl methacrylate, a protected 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate... 

The discovery of living cationic polymerization has provided methods and technology for the synthesis of useful block copolymers, especially those based on elastomeric polyisobutylene (Kennedy and Puskas, 2004). It is noteworthy that isobutylene can only be polymerized by a cationic mechanism. One of the most useful thermoplastic elastomers prepared by cationic polymerization is the polystyrene-f -polyisobutylene-(>-polystyrene (SIBS) triblock copolymer. This polymer imbibed with anti-inflammatory dmgs was one of the first polymers used to coat metal stents as a treatment for blocked arteries (Sipos et al., 2005). The SIBS polymers possess an oxidatively stable, elastomeric polyisobutylene center block and exhibit the critical enabling properties for this application including processing, vascular compatibility, and biostability (Faust, 2012). As illustrated below, SIBS polymers can be prepared by sequential monomer addition using a difunctional initiator with titanium tetrachloride in a mixed solvent (methylene chloride/methylcyclohexane) at low temperature (-70 to -90°C) in the presence of a proton trap (2,6-dt-f-butylpyridine). To prevent formation of coupled products formed by intermolecular alkylation, the polymerization is terminated prior to complete consumption of styrene. These SIBS polymers exhibit tensile properties essentially the same as those of... 

Key words FT-NIR, kinetics, living polymerization, isobutylene, ethylene oxide, butadiene, anionic polymerization, cationic polymerization... 

FT-NIR spectroscopy in combination with a fiber-optic probe was successfully used to monitor living isobutylene, ethylene oxide and butadiene polymerizations using specific monomer absorptions. In the case of EO a temperature dependent induction period was detected when 5ec-BuLi/ BuP4 were used as an initiating system. This demonstrates the usefulness of this technique because this phenomenon had not been observed so far by other methods. We have also successfully conducted experiments in controlled radical polymerization. Then we were able to monitor the RAFT polymerization of A -isopropylacrylamide (NIPAAm). Thus it can be expected that with the help of online NIR measurements detailed kinetic data of many polymerization systems will become available which will shed more light onto the reaction mechanisms. Consequently, FT-NIR appears to be a method, which can be applied universally to the kinetics of polymerization processes. 

---