Riboflavin intestines

Kindi, G., and GastaLdi, G- (1997). Measurements and characteristics of intestinal riboflavin transport. MeiiwxSs Emymol. 280, Part J, 399-407. 

Subramanian, V.S., Subramanya, S.B., Rapp, L., Marchant, J.S., Ma, T.Y., and Said, H.M., 2011. Differential expression of human riboflavin transporters -1, -2, and -3 in polarized epithelia a key role for hRFT-2 in intestinal riboflavin uptake. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 1808 3016-3021. 

Since many essential nutrients (e.g., monosaccharides, amino acids, and vitamins) are water-soluble, they have low oil/water partition coefficients, which would suggest poor absorption from the GIT. However, to ensure adequate uptake of these materials from food, the intestine has developed specialized absorption mechanisms that depend on membrane participation and require the compound to have a specific chemical structure. Since these processes are discussed in Chapter 4, we will not dwell on them here. This carrier transport mechanism is illustrated in Fig. 9C. Absorption by a specialized carrier mechanism (from the rat intestine) has been shown to exist for several agents used in cancer chemotherapy (5-fluorouracil and 5-bromouracil) [37,38], which may be considered false nutrients in that their chemical structures are very similar to essential nutrients for which the intestine has a specialized transport mechanism. It would be instructive to examine some studies concerned with riboflavin and ascorbic acid absorption in humans, as these illustrate how one may treat urine data to explore the mechanism of absorption. If a compound is... 

Recently, Prasad et al. cloned a mammalian Na+-dependent multivitamin transporter (SMVT) from rat placenta [305], This transporter is very highly expressed in intestine and transports pantothenate, biotin, and lipoate [305, 306]. Additionally, it has been suggested that there are other specific transport systems for more water-soluble vitamins. Takanaga et al. [307] demonstrated that nicotinic acid is absorbed by two independent active transport mechanisms from small intestine one is a proton cotransporter and the other an anion antiporter. These nicotinic acid related transporters are capable of taking up monocarboxylic acid-like drugs such as valproic acid, salicylic acid, and penicillins [5], Also, more water-soluble transporters were discovered as Huang and Swann [308] reported the possible occurrence of high-affinity riboflavin transporter(s) on the microvillous membrane. 

Najjar and co-workers58 found on diets furnishing only 60 to 90 ig. of riboflavin per day that the urinary excretion (human) was about twice the intake, and the fecal excretion was about 5 to 6 times the intake. This indicates that for certain individuals on certain diets synthesis of riboflavin by intestinal organisms is sufficient to take care of the entire riboflavin needs. The authors conclude that riboflavin may not be a dietary essential in all cases. If this finding is valid, it certainly points to the probability that human needs vary widely because riboflavin deficiencies in human beings have been observed a great many times on many different types of diets. 

Note CLapp,c apparent membrane permeability clearance for carrier-mediated transport component at lower concentrations where it is highly efficient SI, small intestine ileum for taurocholate and midgut for the others. Absorption was evaluated in our laboratory using the closed loop of the rat intestine in situ (urethane anesthesia, 1.125 g/4.5 ml/kg, i.p.) in 60 min for riboflavin and 30 min for the others. 

Note Data represent the mean S.E. (n = 3). MW, molecular weight P0/w, octanol-to-water partition coefficient CLapp, apparent membrane permeability clearance SI, midgut area of the small intestine NA, not available or applicable. Absorption was evaluated in our laboratory using the closed loop of the rat intestine in situ (urethane anesthesia, 1.125 g/4.5 ml/kg, i.p.) in 60 min for riboflavin and L-camitine and 30 min for the others. For those that are transported by carriers in part (riboflavin and glycerol in both colon and SI, and L-carnitine, 5-fluorouracil, and cephradine in SI), absorption was evaluated at higher concentrations where the contribution of carrier-mediated transport is negligible. Values of P0/w were obtained from a report by Leo et al. [30] except for that of D-xylose, which was determined in our laboratory. a Data by single-pass perfusion experiments. b Unpublished data from our laboratory. 

Tomei S, Yuasa H, Inoue K, Watanabe J (2001) Transport functions of riboflavin carriers in the rat small intestine and colon Site difference and effects of tricyclic-type drugs. Drug Deliv. 8 119-124... 

In foods vitamin B2 occurs free or combined both as FAD and FMN and complexed with proteins. Riboflavin is widely distributed in foodstnffs, but there are very few rich sources. Only yeast and liver contain more than 2mg/100g. Other good sources are milk, the white of eggs, fish roe, kidney, and leafy vegetables. Since riboflavin is continuously excreted in the urine, deficiency is qnite common when dietary intake is insufficient. The symptoms of deficiency are cracked and red lips, inflammation of the lining of the month and tongue, mouth ulcers, cracks at the comer of the mouth, and sore throat. Overdose of oral intake present low toxicity, probably explained by the limited capacity of the intestinal absorption mechanism [417]. 

Drugs that increase intestinal motility or induce diarrhea may decrease riboflavin absorption. Hyperthyroidism and the administration of thyroxine also reduce riboflavin absorption. 

When taken up by the body, riboflavin is converted into its coenzyme forms (Chapter 25) and any excess is quickly excreted in the urine. Urine also contains smaller amounts of metabolites. The ribityl group may be cut by the action of intestinal bacteria acting on riboflavin before it is absorbed. The resulting 10-hydroxyethyl flavin may sometimes be a major urinary product.c d The related 10-formylmethyl flavin is also excreted,0 as are small amounts of 7a- and 8a- hydroxyriboflavins, apparently formed in the body by hydroxylation. These may be degraded farther to the 7a- and 8a- carboxylic acids of lumichrome (riboflavin from which the ribityl side chain is totally missing).6 A riboflavin glucoside has also been found in rat urine.f... 

Factors which tend to decrease the availability of riboflavin include (1) cooking, inasmuch as riboflavin is slightly soluble in water (2) in some plant foods, availability is lower than might be expected because of bound forms (3) decreased phosphorylation in intestines prevents absorption ... 

Bovine milk also contains binding proteins for vitamins B12, folic acid and riboflavin. It has been suggested that the folate-binding protein contributes to the absorption of folate in the intestines (Parodi, 1998). 

Both drugs and compounds naturally present in foods may compete with vitamins for absorption. Chlorpromazine, tricyclic antidepressants, and some antimalarial dmgs inhibit the intestinal transport and metabolism of riboflavin (Section 7.4.4) carotenoids lacking vitamin A activity compete with /S-carotene for intestinal absorption and metabolism (Section 2.2.2.2) and alcohol inhibits the active transport of thiamin across the intestinal mucosa (Section 6.2). 

Dietary deficiency is relatively widespread, yet is apparently never fatal there is not even a clearly characteristic riboflavin deficiency disease. In addition to intestinal bacterial synthesis of the vitamin, there is very efficient conservation and reutilization of riboflavin in tissues. Flavin coenzymes are tightly enzyme bound, in some cases covalently, and control of tissue flavins is largely at the level of synthesis and catabolism of flavin-dependent enzymes. 

FAD and riboflavin phosphate in foods are hydrolyzed in the intestinal lumen by nucleotide diphosphatase and a variety of nonspecific phosphatases to yield free riboflavin, which is absorbed in the upper small intestines by a sodium-dependent saturable mechanism the peak plasma concentration is related to the dose only up to about 15 to 20 mg (40 to 50 /xmol). Thereafter,... 

Intestinal bacteria synthesize riboflavin, and fecal losses of the vitamin may be five- to six-fold higher than intake. It is possible that bacterial synthesis makes a significant contribution to riboflavin intake, because there is carrier-mediated uptake of riboflavin into colonocytes in culture. The activity of the carrier is increased in riboflavin deficiency and decreased when the cells are cultured in the presence of high concentrations of riboflavin. The same carrier mechanism seems to be involved in tissue uptake of riboflavin (Said et al., 2000). 

Much of the absorbed riboflavin is phosphorylated in the intestinal mucosa by flavokinase and enters the bloodstream as riboflavin phosphate this metabolic trapping is essential for concentrative uptake of riboflavin into en-terocytes (Gastaldi et al., 2000). Parenterally administered free riboflavin is also largely phosphorylated in the intestinal mucosa. It is not clear whether this is the result of enterohepatic recycling of the vitamin or simply uptake of free riboflavin into the intestinal mucosa from the bloodstream. 

There is no evidence of any significant storage of riboflavin in addition to the limited absorption, any surplus intake is excreted rapidly thus, once metabolic requirements have been met, urinary excretion of riboflavin and its metabolites reflects intake until intestinal absorption is saturated. In depleted animals, the maximum growth response is achieved with intakes that give about 75% saturation of tissues, and the intake to achieve tissue saturation is that at which there is quantitative urinary excretion of the vitamin. 

Intestinal bacterial cleavage of the ribityl side chain results in the formation of 10-hydroxyethylflavin (an oxidation product of lumifiavin), lumichrome, and 7- and 8-carboxy-lumichromes, which are also excreted in the urine. Some of the lumichromes detected in urine may result from photolysis of riboflavin in the circulation. 

Riboflavin deficiency is associated with hypochromic anemia as a result of secondary iron deficiency. The absorption of iron is impaired in riboflavin-deficient animals, with a greater proportion of a test dose retained in the intestinal mucosal cells bound to ferritin, and hence lost in the feces, rather than being absorbed. The mobilization of iron bound to ferritin, in either intestinal mucosal cells or the liver, for transfer to transferrin, requires oxidation of Fe + to Fe +, areaction catalyzed by NAD-riboflavinphosphateoxidoreductase (Powers et al., 1991 Powers, 1995 Williams et al., 1995). 

At least part of the impairment of iron absorption in riboflavin deficiency is a result of morphological changes in the intestinal mucosa, with hyperproliferation, an increased rate of enterocyte transit along the villi and a reduced number of (longer) villi and deeper crypts (Williams et al., 1996). 

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