Inocybe mushrooms

From recent literature it must be coneluded that mushrooms of the genera Inocybe and Clitocybe contain toxic components that are different from muscarine. The severe symptoms reported of an Israeli ehild poisoned with /. tristis therefore departed from what is known of musearine poisoning (Amitai et al., 1982). The toxic activities of C. acromelalga and C. amoenolens, two Clitocybe species containing clitidine and acromelic acid A, respectively, were studied in rats (Fukuwatari et al., 2001 Saviuc et al., 2003). 

Pilocarpine is a naturally occurring cholinomimetic alkaloid that is structurally distinct from the choline esters. It is a tertiary amine that crosses membranes relatively easily. Therefore, it is rapidly absorbed by the cornea of the eye, and it can cross the blood-brain barrier. Pilocarpine is a pure muscarinic receptor agonist, and it is unaffected by cholinesterases. Muscarine is an alkaloid with no therapeutic use, but it can produce dangerous cholinomimetic stimulation following ingestion of some types of mushrooms (e.g., Inocybes). 

Muscarine Muscarine, molecular formula C9H2qN02, first isolated from fly agaric Amanita muscaria, occurs in certain mushrooms, especially in the species of the genera Inocybe and Clitocybe. It is a parasympathomimetic substance. It causes profound activation of the peripheral parasympathetic nervous system, which may result in convulsions and death. Muscarine mimics the action of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine at the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. 

Certain mushrooms, especially those of the genus Inocybe, contain muscarinic alkaloids. Ingestion of these mushrooms causes typical signs of muscarinic excess within 15-30 minutes. These effects can be very uncomfortable but are rarely fatal. Treatment is with atropine, 1-2 mg parenterally. (Amanita muscaria, the first source of muscarine, contains very low concentrations of the alkaloid.)... 

But nowhere in the legal archives of current drug statutes can you find mention of Genera such as Psilocybe, Stropharia, Paneolus or Inocybe. Nor of the dozens and dozens of species that stem from them. So, you would logically conclude that these magic mushroom are not illegal Well, yes and no. 

The Amanita muscaria mushroom from which muscarine is isolated is also psychoactive. It was believed at first that muscarine was the primary CNS agent. However, more detailed research indicated that muscarine only constituted 0.003% of the fungus. Other species of Inocybe and Clitocybe have more muscarine than muscaria. Other isoxazole components of the muscaria mushroom, such as ibotenic acid and its metabolites, are the main causes of amanita intoxication. This mushroom is believed to have been involved in ancient rituals of the Old World, especially in the Ayrian culture which lived in Siberia around 2000 B.C. This rite worshipped a god called Soma whose presence on earth occurred in the mushroom. Amanita muscaria. Rituals involved brewing a juice with the mushrooms which was consumed by priests. Their urine (isoxazole metabolites) was collected and drunk by others. This ceremony could involve many people and several metabolic rounds until everyone was intoxicated. 

Amanita muscaria (fly agaric mushroom) (Amanitaceae), Inocybe spp. (mushroom) (Cortinariaceae), Clitocybe spp. (mushroom) (Tricholomataceae) Synthetic... 

Muscarinic, e.g. from Inocybe and Clitocybe fungi (mushrooms), causing salivation, lachrymation, miosis, perspiration, bradycardia and bronchoconstriction, also hallucinations. 

In 1983, the species immediately attracted the attention of biochemists and clinicians, after G. Drewitz described mysterious psychotropic intoxications caused by these mushrooms in the city and district of Potsdam, Germany, during June and July, 1980. The observed range of effects was sensational for mushrooms of the Inocybe genus, because many of its species induce t5q)ical muscarine poisoning symptoms. Muscarine causes parasympathetico-mimetic symptoms, such as pupil contraction (miosis), increased salivation and saliva production. Muscarine has been identified in at least 40 species of the Inocybe genus. The first reports... 

The regular pattern of. involuntary intoxications is a good indicator for the large scope of expansion of Inocybe aeruginascens into new habitats during the 1980s. For example, at the time of the initial intoxications - when the species was still restricted to a few easily quantifiable collections - the mushrooms had spread from Potsdam to the location known in 1982, and from there moved on to several other locations in the vicinity, where more than 150 mushrooms were found (see Figure 34). 

Herein lies the most marked difference between Inocybe aeruginascens and other European psychotropic mushroom species Inocybe aeruginascens grows only in areas of human development. Their prime locations are in the middle of villages and towns, where they grow locally much like other Inocybe species. They may temporarily produce mass quantities of fruiting bodies, in those locations that are t5q)ical habitats for the edible varieties of the fairy ring mushroom. 

Unlike species of thin-fleshed Psilocybe mushrooms that do not fmit until fall, Inocybe aeruginascem frequently suffers from fly larvae infestations, especially in older colonies. The resulting lesions are injured areas that turn greenish-blue. It must be noted, however, that of all species introduced here, Inocybe aeruginascem is most easily misidentified by laypersons, as it is of the same genus as the potentially lethal species that produce muscarine. 

Psilocybin levels in Inocybe aeruginascem are comparable to those found in Psilocybe mexicana Heim. Moreover, Inocybe aeruginascem contain traces amounts of psilocin at most. Baeocystin, on the other hand, is accumulated at levels comparable to those of psilocybin. The alkaloid content of the Inocybe species differs from those found in the Psilocybe species, which contain three to live times more psilocybin than baeocystin. The variation of alkaloid content across different samples of fmiting bodies is illustrated in Table 7, which shows the results from analyses of mushrooms collected at a location in Caputh near Potsdam on June 8, 1986 (see Figures 32 and 34). 

In addition, it should be noted that results from these analyses of mushroom extracts indicated the presence of a previously unknown alkaloid, which I have named aeruginascin. The molecular stmcture of this substance must be similar to those of psilocybin and baeocystin. It is a compound that is soluble only in polar solvents, such as water, methanol and acetic acid. The levels of concentration of aemginascin found in the fmiting bodies is comparable to those of the other two alkaloids. The compound is characteristic of the Inocybe species, so that the analytical results of mushrooms extracts using thin-layer chromatography constitute a kind of fingerprint identification of Inocybe aeruginascem. 

However, Inocybe aeruginascens is a species that produces only trace amounts of psilocin therefore, it is very likely that the iron salt reacts with other phenoles in this mushroom species. 

As early as 1909, Murrill described "Inocybe infida", a mushroom with "narcotic" effects from New York. In 1911, Ford named "Inocybe infelix" as a species that also caused strange effects, without inducing s miptoms of muscarine poisoning. These descriptions immediately bring to mind the psilocybin-producing fibreheads, even though visionary experiences are not expressly mentioned. 

Gartz, J. (1989). Analysis of aemginascin in fruiting bodies of the mushroom Inocybe aemginascens. International Journal of Crude Drug Research, 27, 141-144. 

I am grateful to several individuals who introduced me to mycology special thanks are due those who have provided me with a number of extremely rare mushroom samples for my research. I am most grateful to Gerhard Drewitz of Caputh (Berlin) for his helpful observations on the taxonomy and toxicology of the Inocybe species. For more than 10 years, he has furnished me with rare mushroom specimens for chemical analyses. I am thankful for our many joint excursions into the world of mushrooms. 

Among these species, Inocybe corydalina is the most common. An analysis revealed a psilocybin content of only 0.011% -0.1%, a concentration so low, that this species would become clinically relevant only if large amounts of the mushrooms were eaten. 

Muscarine is present in certain mushrooms in many genera, notably the Inocybe and Clitocybe genera, but small amounts are also present in the fly agaric, Amanita muscaria. The ecological function of this nerve poison in the fungus is not understood. In mammals, the typical symptoms are unrest, irritability, excitement, sweating, salivation, respiratory trouble, feeble pulse,... 

Muscarine-histamine poisoning occurs when mushrooms from the Inocybe or Clitocybe species such as I. geophylla, or C. dealbata (Sweat mushrooms) are eaten. 

Generally these mushrooms are small, brown and leathery (Inocybe species) or small white and leathery (Clitocybe species)... 

Mushrooms are a rich source of toxins mushroom poisoning has increased as the result of the popularity of hunting wild mushrooms. High concentrations of muscarine are present in various species o/Inocybe and Clitocybe. The symptoms of muscarine intoxication (salivation, lacrima-tion, nausea, vomiting, headache, visual disturbances, abdominal colic, diarrhea, bronchospasm, bradycardia, hypotension, shock) develop within 30-60 minutes of ingestion. Treatment with atropine (1-2 mg intramuscularly every 30 minutes) effectively blocks these effects. 

According to earlier reports, difficulties in isolating the quaternary salts in a pure state and hence in detecting the diastereomers were surmounted by chromatographic separation of their nor-bases derived by pyrolysis 21) of the muscarine chlorides under reduced pressure at 200-240°C. In this way all muscarine diastereomers were found in A. muscaria, Inocybe patouillardi, and I. rimosa (14). Later, owing to impressive developments in instrumental analytical methods, detection and identification of the alkaloids as intact cations by recording secondary-ion mass spectra (SIMS), either of intact mushroom tissue or of ethanol extracts of defatted mushroom tissue, appeared to be possible (22). 

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