Inhalation of sulfur dioxide

Sufficient evidence is available to indicate that atmospheric pollution in vaiying degrees does affect health adversely. [Amdur, Melvin, and Drinker, Effec t of Inhalation of Sulfur Dioxide by Man, Lancet, 2, 758 (1953) Barton, Corn, Gee, VassaUo, and Thomas, Response of Healthy Men to Inhaled Low Concentrations of Gas-Aerosol Mixtures, Arch. Lnviron. Health, 18, 681 (1969) Bates, Bell, Burnham, Hazucha, and Mantha, Problems in Studies of Human Exposure to Air Pollutants, Can. Med. A.s.soc. J., 103, 833 (1970) Ciocco and... 

Gunnison, A. F., and E. D. Palmes. S-sulfonates in human plasma following inhalation of sulfur dioxide. Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 35 288-291, 1974. 

Balmes, J.R., J.M.Fine, and D.Sheppard. 1987. Symptomatic bronchoconstriction after short-term inhalation of sulfur dioxide. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 136(5) 1117—1121. 

Nadel, J.A., H.Salem, B.Tamplin, and Y.Tokiwa. 1965. Mechanism of bronchoconstriction during inhalation of sulfur dioxide. J. Appl. Physiol. 20(1) 164—167. 

Wunderlich, V.P., W.Leupold, W.Mittenzwey, and E.Rupprecht. 1982. Severe lung damage by inhalation of sulfur dioxide, [in German]. Dtsch. Gesundheits Wes. 37(ll) 519-524. Yokoyama, E., R.E.Yoder, and N.R.Frank 1971. Distribution of 3S in the blood and its excretion in urine in dogs exposed to 35 sulfur dioxide. Arch. Environ. Health 22(3) 389-395. 

Three different mechanisms have been proposed to explain the reaction to sulfites in asthmatic patients. The first is explained by the inhalation of sulfur dioxide, which produces bronchoconstriction in aU asthmatics through direct stimulation of afferent parasympathetic irritant receptors. Furthermore, inhalation of atropine or the ingestion of doxepin protects sulfite-sensitive patients from reacting to the ingestion of sulfites. The second theory, IgE-mediated reaction, is supported by reported cases of sulfite-sensitive anaphylaxis reaction in patients with positive sulfite skin test. Finally, a reduced concentration of sulfite oxidase enzyme (the enzyme that catalyzes oxidation of sulfites to sulfates) compared with normal individuals has been demonstrated in a group of sulfite-sensitive asthmatics. 

The rat, but not the hamster, mouse, rabbit, and guinea pig, has mucous glands as does man. Lamb and Reid used the rat to produce experimental bronchitis from inhalation of sulfur dioxide and cigarette smoke questionable if other... 

Atmospheric sulfur oxides (sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide) primarily come from the combustion of sulfur-containing coal [36]. Inhalation of sulfur dioxide rapidly causes the onset of bronchospastic effects after exposure [32]. 

FIGURE 7-S Comparison of dosage of sulfur dioxide and ozone predicted per breath by McJilton et al. for each model s ment. Inhaled concentration = 1,000 ng/m. Tidal volume - 500 cm . Inspiration time expiration time 2 s. Reprinted with permission from McJilton er al. Weibel s generation numbers added. 

The irritant effects of sulfur dioxide are due to the rapidity with which it forms sulfurous acid on contact with moist membranes. Approximately 90% of all sulfur dioxide inhaled is absorbed in the upper respiratory passages, where most effects occur however, it may produce respiratory paralysis and may also cause pulmonary edema. In fatal cases, histopathologic examination of the lungs has revealed pulmonary edema and alveolar hemorrhage. ... 

In one animal study, a significant increase in lung tumors was observed in female mice exposed by inhalation. Available data indicate a genotoxic potential for sulfur dioxide. Increases in chromosome aberrations and sister chromatid exchanges have been detected in occupationally exposed workers. The lARC has determined that there is limited evidence for the carcinogenicity of sulfur dioxide in experimental animals and inadequate evidence in humans. 

The handling of ammonia safely has been discussed by Brandt(Ref 40) and the toxicity of ammonia fumes by inhalation,by Wheatherby (Ref 55) Ohno(Ref 57) noted that the tojcicity of gaseous ammonia was much smaller than that of sulfur dioxide. Both gases produce irritation of mucous membrane and eyes, bronchitis, hyperemia, hemorrage, endema, exudation and pneumonia. Krop(Ref 58) lists the toxiciry and health hazards of ammonia and other substances used as fuels in rocket propellants[Also see Sax(Ref 82) for additional information on the hazards of ammonia]... 

Kane LE, Alarie Y. 1979. Interactions of sulfur dioxide and acrolein as sensory irritants during inhalation studies in mice. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 48(1 Part 2) A2. 

Although the primary effects of sulfur dioxide are on the respiratory tract, inhaled sulfur dioxide can be transferred into the systemic circulation. After its rapid absorption, inhaled sulfur dioxide is rapidly converted to a mixture of sulfite, bisulfite, and sulfur trioxide (ATSDR 1998) ... 

Studies on humans and dogs show that sulfur dioxide is excreted primarily in the urine as sulfate (Savic et al. 1987 Yokoyama et al. 1971). Yokoyama et al. (1971) exposed dogs via inhalation to 35S02 and determined that 35S was excreted primarily in the urine as sulfate. An average of 84.4% of the urinary radioactivity was exhibited as inorganic sulfate 92.4% was total sulfate. In humans it is estimated that 12-15% of sulfur dioxide absorbed to mucous membranes is desorbed and exhaled (Speizer and Frank 1966). Plasma S-sulfonates are relatively long-lived in the body, with half-life clearance of 4.1 d in rabbits exposed to 10 ppm sulfur dioxide (Gunnison and Palmes 1974). 

Balchum, O.J., J.Dybicki, and G.R.Meneely. 1960a. The dynamics of sulfur dioxide inhalation, absorption, distribution and retention. Arch. Ind. Health 21 564-569. 

Baskurt, O.K. 1988. Acute hematologic and hemorheologic effects of sulfur dioxide inhalation. Arch. Environ. Health 43(5) 344-348. 

Stratmann, U., R.R.Lehmann, T.Steinbach, and G.Wessling. 1991. Effect of sulfur dioxide inhalation on the respiratory tract of the rat. Zentralbl. Hyg. Umweltmed. 192(4) 324—335. Touloumi, G., S.J.Pocock, K.Katsouyanni, and D.Trichopoulos. 1994. Short-term effects of air pollution on daily mortality in Athens A time-series analysis. Int. J. Epidemiol. 23(5) 957—... 

Meng Z, Qin G, Zhang B, et al. (2003) Oxidative damage of sulfur dioxide inhalation on lungs and hearts of mice. Environmental Research 93(3) 285-292. 

---