In honey

D Fructose (a 2 ketohexose also known as levulose it IS found in honey and IS signficantly sweeter than table sugar)... 

Dextrose (D-glucose) is by far the most abundant sugar in nature. It occurs either in the monosaccharide form (free state) or in a polymeric form of anhydrodextrose units. As a monosaccharide, dextrose is present in substantial quantities in honey, fmits, and berries. As a polymer, dextrose occurs in starch, cellulose (qv), and glycogen. Sucrose is a disaccharide of dextrose and fmctose. 

Sucrose, the compound we call sugar, is the most common disaccharide. One of the monomer units in sucrose is a-glucose. The other is fructose, a monosaccharide found in honey and natural fruit juices. 

Residue determination in honey, induced fluorescence (Xn >400 nm, cut off filter) detection limit 0.5 ng. 

Thompson, H.M. and Mans, C. (2007). The relevance of sublethal effects in honey bee testing for pesticide risk assessment. Pest Management Science 63, 1058-1061. 

Venom collection is done by electrostimulation in honey bees [8] and by venom sac extraction in vespids [9]. While electrostimulation results in pure venom, venom sac extracts may be contaminated by some body proteins. The amoimt of venom injected by a sting varies from 50 to 140 pg dry weight for the honey bee, but was estimated to be much lower in vespids 1.7-3.1 pg for Vespula, 2.4-5 pg for Dolichovespula, and 4.2-17 pg for Polistes [10]. 

The natural history of Hymenoptera venom anaphylaxis, that is the risk to develop anaphylaxis again when re-stung, has been analyzed in several prospective studies (table 3) [35-37], and in placebo or whole-body extract treated controls of prospective studies on venom immunotherapy [38-40]. It is higher in patients with a history of severe as compared to mild systemic anaphylactic reactions, and in honey bee than in vespid venom-allergic patients - most likely because of the smaller and less constant amoimt of venom applied by vespids [10,41]. A short interval between two stings increases the risk of anaphylaxis [25], but severe anaphylaxis may occur again even after intervals of 10-20 years or more. 

Sting provocation tests are often considered to be the gold standard, although they are less reliable in vespids than in honey bees [35-37, 41, 43]. They are commonly used to assure the efficacy of venom immunotherapy, but are generally considered as unethical in untreated patients with a history of venom anaphylaxis. 

Maly FE, Marti-Wyss S, Blumer S, Cuhat-Stark I, Wiithrich B Mononuclear blood cell sulfidoleukot-riene generation in the presence of interleukin-3 and whole blood histamine release in honey bee and yellow jacket venom allergy. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 1997 7 217-224. 49... 

Caroli S, Forte G, Iamiceu AL, Galoppi B 1999) Determination of essential and potentially toxic trace elements in honey by inductively coupled plasma-based techniques. Talanta 50 327-336. Chiswell B, Johnson D (1994) Manganese. In Seiler HG, Sigel A, Sigel H, eds. Handbook on metals in clinical and analytical chemistry. Dekker, New York. 

The water content in honey is generally less than 20%. Any excess of water can be removed by centrifugation or vacuum evaporation. If water is artificially added into honeys, it can cause honey fermentation. The water content in honey needs to be in a normal range such as 15.5-18.6% as recommended by the Eastern Apicultural Society of North America. 

Highly diluted honey is unlikely a realistic adulteration practice. Honey water content can naturally be lower than 13.6% or higher than 23% based on the source of the honey, climate conditions, and other factors. Fermentation does not usually become a problem in honeys if water content is less than 18%. 

The nitrogen content in honey is about 0.04%. Amino acid content accounts for approximately 1% (w/w). Free amino acid profiles have been proposed for the determination of the botanical and geographical... 

Volatile and semivolatile compounds are present in honeys and are attributed to aroma qualities. Aroma compoimds can indicate floral and geographical origins and processing treatments. Aroma compounds come from nectar or honeydew. Aroma components can be also formed during fhermal processing and sforage (Bonvehi and Coll, 2003 Soria et ah, 2003). More than 400 components have been detected in the volatile flavor fraction of honey... 

Higher profits are the major incentive for unlawful adulteration. The traditional adulterants are inverted sugar syrup, conventional com syrup, and high-fructose com syrup. Dehydration of fructose can produce hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF). HMF is usually indicative of adulteration with inverted sugar syrup. However, it is somewhat ambiguous because HMF can legally be present in honey that has been subjected to heat or abusive storage. 

The activity of a-, p-, and y-amylase is usually used as an important quality parameter of honey, according to the Directive 2001/110/CE (Voldrich et al, 2009). Amylase in honey mainly originates from the salivary secretions of honeybees, which was concluded based on fhe presence of amylase in honey produced by sugar-fed honeybees (Sfadelmeier and Bergner, 1986) and on similarities between honey and... 

Each plant tissue tends to have an obviously distinctive profile of flavonoids. The flavonoid content can reach about 0.5% in pollen, 10% in propolis, and about 6 mg/kg in honey. Havonoid aglycones appear to be present only in propolis and honey, while pollen contains flavanols in herosidic forms. The flavonoids in honey and propolis have been identified as flavanones and flavanones/flavanols (Campos et ah, 1990). The antimi-crobially active flavanone pinocembrine was foimd to be a major flavonoid in honey (Bogdanov, 1989). Amiot et ah (1989) studied two blossom and two honeydew Swiss honey samples and foimd that pinocembrine was the main flavonoid. Pinocembrine concentration varied between 2 and 3 mg/kg (Bogdanov, 1989). Berahia et ah (1993) analyzed sunflower honey samples and detected six flavone/flavols, four flavanone/ flavols, and pinocembrin, of which pinocembrin is the main flavonoid. The flavonoids in sunflower honey and propolis were characterized and assessed for their effects on hepatic drug-metabolizing enzymes and benzo [fl]pyrene-DNA adduct formation (Sabatier et ah, 1992 Siess et ah, 1996). 

Pinocembrin, chrysin, galangin, and pinobanksin are main flavonoids in honey and propolis. 

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