Hydrocarbons sources

Immobile hydrocarbon sources requite refining processes involving hydrogenation. Additional hydrogen is also requited to eliminate sources of sulfur and nitrogen oxides that would be emitted to the environment. Resources can be classified as mostiy consumed, proven but stiU in the ground, and yet to be discovered. A reasonable estimate for the proven reserves for cmde oil is estimated at 140 x 10 t (1.0 x 10 bbl) (4). In 1950 the United States proven reserves were 32% of the world s reserve. In 1975 this percentage had decreased to 5%, and by 1993 it was down to 2.5%. Since 1950 the dominance of... 

The use of natural gas as a hydrocarbon source depends on transportation. Over long distances and waterways, Hquefied natural gas (LNG) is dehvered in cryogenic tankers or tmcks (see Gas, natural Pipelines). In the United States, about 22% of the fossil-fuel energy used in 1990 was gas, but in Japan this percentage was much less. 

Ammonia (NHj) is produced from atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen from a hydrocarbon source. Natural gas is the most commonly used hydrocarbon feedstock for new plants other feedstocks that have been used include naphtha, oil, and gasified coal. Natural gas is favored over the other feedstocks from an environmental perspective. 

Easily produced from any hydrocarbon source through steam cracking and in high yields. 

JUNCTION-1,..., JUNCTION-15, PIPE-1,. PIPE-42, HYDROCARBON-SOURCE, SINK-1, SINK-2, HYDROGEN-SOURCE, NATURAL-GAS-SOURCE. CARBON-TETRACHLORIDE-SOURCE,... 

PIPE-31 PIPE-33, HYDROCARBON-SOURCE, SINK-1, SINK-2]... 

Hydration of unactivated alkynes is an important method for functionalizing this plentiful hydrocarbon source. Therefore, a variety of metal ions have been proposed as catalysts for this reaction, and almost all of the reported additions of water to terminal alkynes follow the Markonikov rule. The hydration of l-aUcynes with Hg(II) salts in sulfuric acid [85], RuCh/aq.HCl [86, 87], K[Ru (edta-H)Cl] 2H20 [88], RhCl,.3H20/aq. HCl [89], RhCl3/NR4 [90], Zeise-type Pt(II) complexes [91-93], and NaAuCl4 [94] produced exclusively methyl ketones (Eq. 6.46). 

To define the extent of flammable vapor travel from vents, drains and other open hydrocarbon sources. 

Sauer TC, Brown JS, Boehm PD, et al. 1993. Hydrocarbon source identification and weathering characterization of intertidal and subtidal sediments along the Saudi Arabian coast after the Gulf War Oil Spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin 27 117-134. 

Douglas, G., Bence, A., Prince, R., McMillen, S., and Butler, E., 1996, Environmental Stability of Selected Petroleum Hydrocarbon Source and Weathering Ratios Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 30, pp. 2332-2339. 

Nonurban oxidant measurements in Ohio were reported by Neligan and Angus. Concentrations of 0.18 and 0.12 ppm were reported for rural sites in Wilmington and McConnelsville, respectively. At the same time, urban sites had similar concentrations. However, the nonurban sites violated the ambient air quality standard more frequently than the urban sites. Trajectory analysis showed that ozone concentrations of 0.04-0.06 ppm were found in air masses that had not passed over anthropogenic hydrocarbon sources. These may have been examples of naturally occurring oxidant. Airborne hydrocarbon bag samples were obtained over 6-min... 

Baek, S. O., R. A. Field, M. E. Goldstone, P. W. Kirk, J. N. Lester, and R. Perry, A Review of Atmospheric Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Sources, Fate, and Behavior, Water, Air, Soil Pollut., 60, 279-300 (1991a). 

Conner, T. L A. Lonneman, and R. L. Seila, Transportation-Related Volatile Hydrocarbon Source Profiles Measured in Atlanta, J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc., 45, 383-394 (1995). 

If we take into account less accessible petroleum and gas reserves or those locked up in the form of tar sands, oil shale, or methane hydrates, our overall hydrocarbon reserves could be even 3-5 times higher. This would give us a century s supply, whereas our coal reserves may stretch to two or three centuries. Despite this more favorable outlook, it is necessary to point out the existing close relationship between our ever-increasing overall energy needs and our hydrocarbon sources essential in a technological society. 

Hydrocarbons are required in our modern-day life not only as energy sources, including convenient transportation fuels for our cars, tracks, airplanes (see Section 1.8.2) but also to produce commonly used products ranging from polymers to textiles to pharmaceuticals. At the beginning of the twenty-first century we can look back with substantial satisfaction at our technological and scientific achievements. We should, however, also realize that we continue to deplete the nonrenewable resources of our planet, particularly fossil fuels and hydrocarbons and at the same time create ecological and environmental problems. As mentioned earlier, dire predictions of the early exhaustion of our natural hydrocarbon sources by the... 

Reasons for interest in the catalyzed reactions of NO, CO, and COz are many and varied. Nitric oxide, for example, is an odd electron, hetero-nuclear diatomic which is the parent member of the environmentally hazardous oxides of nitrogen. Its decomposition and reduction reactions, which occur only in the presence of catalysts, provide a stimulus to research in nitrosyl chemistry. From a different perspective, the catalyzed reactions of CO and COz have attracted attention because of the need to develop hydrocarbon sources that are alternatives to petroleum. Carbon dioxide is one of the most abundant sources of carbon available, but its utilization will require a cheap and plentiful source of hydrogen for reduction, and the development of catalysts that will permit reduction to take place under mild conditions. The use of carbon monoxide in the development of alternative hydrocarbon sources is better defined at this time, being directly linked to coal utilization. The conversion of coal to substitute natural gas (SNG), hydrocarbons, and organic chemicals is based on the hydrogen reduction of CO via methanation and the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. Notable successes using heterogeneous catalysts have been achieved in this area, but most mechanistic proposals remain unproven, and overall efficiencies can still be improved. 

The export of Caspian hydrocarbon sources to the international market can be secured at minimum expenses through South Caucasus and Turkey. 

Baek, S.O., Field, R.A., Goldstone, M.E., Kirk, P.W., Lester, J.N., Perry, R., 1991. A review of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Source, fate and behavior. Water, Air, Soil Pollut. 60, 279-300. 

Meissner, F.F. Woodward, J. Clayton, J.L. In Hydrocarbon Source Rocks of the Greater Rocky Mountain Region Woodward, J. Meissner, F.F. Clayton, J.L., Eds. Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists Denver pp 1-34. 

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