Hybrid gasoline-powered

Transportation accounts for about one-fourth of the primary energy consumption in the United States. And unlike other sectors of the economy that can easily switch to cleaner natural gas or electricity, automobiles, trucks, nonroad vehicles, and buses are powered by internal-combustion engines burning petroleum products that produce carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons. Efforts are under way to accelerate the introduction of electric, fuel-cell, and hybrid (electric and fuel) vehicles to replace sonic of these vehicles in both the retail marketplace and in commercial, government, public transit, and private fleets. These vehicles dramatically reduce harmful pollutants and reduce carbon dioxide emissions by as much as 50 percent or more compared to gasoline-powered vehicles. 

Fig. 15.1 (a) CO2 emissions over the next century for five scenarios where gasoline vehicles, gasoline-hybrid, gasoline plug-in hybrids, biofuel plug-in hybrids, and fuel cell electric vehicles are used as the power source [18] (b) well-wheels green house gas emissions based on state of technology in 2020 [19]... 

A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a car with both a gasoline powered engine and an electric motor. Some HE Vs achieve mileage ratings as high as 75 miles per gallon of gas. Calculate this quantity in miles per liter... 

Summary ol Hybrid Vehicle Fuel Economy Results on the FUDS and Highway Driving Cycles using Various Engines and a Fuel Cell (1) mpg diesel fuel for diesel engine and mpg gasoline equivalent for fuel cell powered vehicles... 

There is a major potential for energy conservation in transportation, by increasing the energy efficiency of automobiles. The recent commercialization of hybrid vehicles, which combine electric and gasoline motors, demonstrates how much more efficient automobile transport can be. Hybrid power systems deliver double the fuel efficiency of conventional engines. Moreover, as fuel cells are perfected, even greater energy efficiencies may be achieved. 

An early hybrid was the Woods Dual Power coupe, which was produced from 1917 to 1918. It had a four-cylinder gasoline engine next to an electric motor. Woods had been manufacturing electric cars since 1899 and the company attempted the hybrid to stay in business. But the car was expensive and its fuel economy was not an advantage since gasoline was not expensive. Few were sold. 

Fuel cells typically have higher efficiencies at lower power, so a hybrid fuel cell vehicle with battery will not improve its efficiency as it does for a gasoline engine. 

The calculations of the carbon emission reduction are based on the deviation from the reference-system gasoline in a combustion engine. If reference systems with higher efficiencies are applied, e.g., hybrid-electric vehicles, the total carbon emission reduction of the hydrogen path is lower. In this case, a modern CAES power plant might have benefits. 

For purposes of characterization, emission sources are generally divided broadly into stationary and mobile or transportation sources. Stationary sources are further divided into point and area emitters. Typical point sources must include petroleum refineries and electric power plants. Commercial solvent emission and gasoline marketing emission may generally be represented as area sources. A third category has been defined recently—indirect sources—that takes into account hybrid sources like sports arenas and shopping centers. These have fixed locations, but the traffic that is generated by or attracted to such a facility constitutes the source of emission that is combined with the emission of the facility itself. 

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