Geology

Geoiogy. An example of electrochemistry in geology concerns certain types of soil movements. The movement of earth under stress depends on its viscosity as a siurry that is, a viscous mixture of suspended solids in water with a consistency of very thick cream. Such mixtures of material exhibit thixotropy, which depends on the interactions of the double layers between colloidal particles. These in turn depend on the concentration of ions, which affects the field across the double layer and causes the colloidal structures upon which the soil s consistency depends to repel each other and remain stable. Thus, in certain conditions the addition of ionic solutions to soils may cause a radical increase in their tendency to flow. 

Electrochemistry as an Interdisciplinary Reid, Distinct from Chemistry 

All fields in chemistry (e.g., that of the liquid state or of reaction kinetics) are connected to each otha and, indeed, fields treated under chemistry tend, as time goes on, to move toward the more sophisticated level attained in physics. Chemists undertake approximate treatments of relatively complicated problems that are not yet 

In e/ectrochemistry, however, there is an immediate connection to the physics of current flow and electric fields. Furthermore, it is difficult to pursue interfacial electrochemistry without knowing some principles of theoretical structural metallurgy and electronics, as well as hydrodynamic theory. Conversely (see Section 1.5.2), the range of fields in which the important steps are controlled by the electrical properties of interfaces and the flow of charge across them is great and exceeds that of other areas in which physical chemistry is relevant In fact, so great is the range of topics in which 

This widespread involvement with other areas of science suggests that in the future electrochemistry will be treated increasingly as an interdisciplinary area as, for example, materials science is, rather than as a branch of physical chemistry. 

In a similar vein, mean seawater temperatures can be estimated from the ratio of 0 to 0 in limestone. The latter rock is composed of calcium carbonate, laid down from shells of countless small sea creatures as they die and fall to the bottom of the ocean. The ratio of the oxygen isotopes locked up as carbon dioxide varies with the temperature of sea water. Any organisms building shells will fix the ratio in the calcium carbonate of their shells. As the limestone deposits form, the layers represent a chronological description of the mean sea temperature. To assess mean sea temperatures from thousands or millions of years ago, it is necessary only to measure accurately the ratio and use a precalibrated graph that relates temperatures to isotope ratios in sea water. 

This section briefly summarizes the geological characteristics of gold-hearing deposits, and sources and production of gold, ft is emphasized that reliable data on these subjects were scarce and difficult to obtain and that interpretations should be treated with cautioa 

California in 1848, Australia in 1850, and the Yukon in 1896. Much of the gold in the Ural Mountains of the Former Soviet Union is alluvial. 

Certain locations in Canadian stream beds and drainage basins favor preferential accumulation of gold and other heavy minerals, and many models have been formulated to locate placer formations. One model was based on the process of erosion and redeposition of the bed during annual flood events 

Geological samples frequently are analyzed by using emission spectroscopy and methods have been developed for determination of a large number of elements. Ahrens and Taylor (see footnote 5) give information to aid in the determination of some 48 elements in geological samples. 

Much useful information on the composition of geological samples can be obtained by use of semiquantitative methods, such as those described in Chapter 7. Screening of a large number of elements in many samples can be accomplished in this manner. If concentrations of certain elements in such samples is sufficiently high, then a more precise quantitative technique may be used. The U. S. Geological Survey makes use of mobile spectroscopic laboratories in its study of geological materials and they have found this method very useful. 

Spectroscopic methods are most useful to determine concentrations of minor elements in ninerals however, major element composition is also frequently desirable. Spectroscopy is not as well suited to determine the concentration of major elements as for minor constituents, yet it can yield valuable information and can serve especially to select samples that may require further study. 

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Despite such improvements, exploration remains a high risk activity. Many international oil and gas companies have large portfolios of exploration interests, each with their own geological and fiscal characteristics and with differing probabilities of finding oil or gas. Managing such exploration assets and associated operations in many countries represents a major task. 

Even if geological conditions for the presence of hydrocarbons are promising, host country political and fiscal conditions must also be favourable for the commercial success of exploration ventures. Distance to potential markets, existence of an infrastructure, and availability of a skilled workforce are further parameters which need to be evaluated before a long term commitment can be made. 

Several conditions need to be satisfied for the existence of a hydrocarbon accumulation, as indicated in Figure 2.1. The first of these is an area in which a suitable sequence of rocks has accumulated over geologic time, the sedimentary basin. Within that sequence there needs to be a high content of organic matter, the source rock. Through elevated temperatures and pressures these rocks must have reached maturation, the condition at which hydrocarbons are expelled from the source rock. 

Hydrocarbons are of a lower density than formation water. Thus, if no mechanism is in place to stop their upward migration they will eventually seep to the surface. On seabed surveys in some offshore areas we can detect crater like features ( pock marks ) which also bear witness to the escape of oil and gas to the surface. It is assumed that throughout the geologic past vast quantities of hydrocarbons have been lost in this manner from sedimentary basins. 

Even if all of the elements described so far have been present within a sedimentary basin an accumulation will not necessarily be encountered. One of the crucial questions in prospect evaluation is about the timing of events. The deformation of strata into a suitable trap has to precede the maturation and migration of petroleum. The reservoir seal must have been intact throughout geologic time. If a leak occurred sometime in the past, the exploration well will only encounter small amounts of residual hydrocarbons. Conversely, a seal such as a fault may have developed early on in the field s history and prevented the migration of hydrocarbons into the structure. 

Given the costs of exploration ventures it is clear that much effort will be expended to avoid failure. A variety of disciplines are drawn in such as geology, geophysics. 

The section is divided into four parts, which discuss the common reservoir types from a geological viewpoint, the fluids which are contained within the reservoir, the principal methods of data gathering and the ways in which this data is interpreted. Each section is introduced by pointing out its commercial relevance. 

Keywords reservoir structures, faults, folds, depositional environments, diagenesis, geological controls, porosity, permeability... 

Introduction and Commercial Application The objective of reservoir geology is the description and quantification of geologically controlled reservoir parameters and the prediction of their lateral variation. Three parameters broadly define the reservoir geology of a field ... 

To a large extent the reservoir geology controls the producibility of a formation, i.e. to what degree transmissibility to fluid flow and pressure communication exists. Knowledge of the reservoir geological processes has to be based on extrapolation of the very limited data available to the geologist, yet the geological model s the base on which the field development plan will be built. 

To derive a reservoir geological model various methods and techniques are employed mainly the analysis of core material, wireline logs, high resolution seismic and outcrop studies. These data gathering techniques are further discussed in Sections 5.3 and 2.2. 

Since faults are zones of inherent weakness they may be reactivated over geologic time. Usually, faulting occurs well after the sediments have been deposited. An exception to this is a growth feu/f (also termed a syn-sedimentary fault), shown in Figure 5.7. They are extensional structures and can frequently be observed on seismic sections through deltaic sequences. The fault plane is curved and in a three dimensional view has the shape of a spoon. This type of plane is called listric. Growth faults can be visualised as submarine landslides caused by rapid deposition of large quantities of water-saturated... 

Dissolution and replacement. Some minerals, in particular carbonates, are not chemically stable over a range of pressures, temperatures and pH. Therefore there will be a tendency over geologic time to change to a more stable variety as shown in Figure 5.12. 

The magnesium ion is made available by migrating pore waters. If the process is continuous on a geologic time scale more and more Mg + is introduced to the system and the porosity reduces again. The rock has been over-dolomitised. 

Alkanes from CH to C4gFlg2 typically appear in crude oil, and represent up to 20% of the oil by volume. The alkanes are largely chemically inert (hence the name paraffins, meaning little affinity), owing to the fact that the carbon bonds are fully saturated and therefore cannot be broken to form new bonds with other atoms. This probably explains why they remain unchanged over long periods of geological time, despite their exposure to elevated temperatures and pressures. 

In addition to a geological evaluation on a macroscopio and microscopic scale, plugs (small cylinders 2 cm diameter and 5 cm long) are cut from the slabbed core, usually at about 30 cm intervals. Core analysis is carried out on these samples. 

Having gathered and evaluated relevant reservoir data it is desirable to present this data in a way that allows easy visualisation of the subsurface situation. With a workstation it is easy to create a three dimensional picture of the reservoir, displaying the distribution of a variety of parameters, e.g. reservoir thickness or saturations. All realisations need to be in line with the geological model. 

Maps can be created by hand or by computer mapping packages. The latter has become standard. Nevertheless, care should be taken that the mapping process reflects the geological model. Highly complex areas may require considerable manual input to the maps which can subsequently be digitised. 

The other parameters used in the calculation of STOMP and GIIP have been discussed in Section 5.4 (Data Interpretation). The formation volume factors (B and Bg) were introduced in Section 5.2 (Reservoir Fluids). We can therefore proceed to the quick and easy deterministic method most frequently used to obtain a volumetric estimate. It can be done on paper or by using available software. The latter is only reliable if the software is constrained by the geological reservoir model. 

At the development planning stage, a reservoir mode/will have been constructed and used to determine the optimum method of recovering the hydrocarbons from the reservoir. The criteria for the optimum solution will most likely have been based on profitability and safety. The model Is Initially based upon a limited data set (perhaps a seismic survey, and say five exploration and appraisal wells) and will therefore be an approximation of the true description of the field. As development drilling and production commence, further data is collected and used to update both the geological model (the description of the structure, environment of deposition, diagenesis and fluid distribution) and the reservoir model (the description of the reservoir under dynamic conditions). 

Miall, Andrew (1984) Principles of Sedimentary Basin Analysis,468p, Springer Verlag North, F. K., (1985) Petroleum Geology, 607p, Allen Unwin... 

Walker, Roger G, et al. (1992) Facies Models,409p, Geological Association of Canada... 

Carbonate Reservoir Characterization A Geologic-Engineering Analysis, Part I... 

For geological and geochemical earthquake forerunners the variations of radon content in underground waters are used. The radon content dispersion systematically increases before the earthquake. 

The quantitative imaging capability of the NMP is one of the major strengtiis of the teclmique. The advanced state of the databases available for PIXE [21, 22 and 23] allows also for the analysis of layered samples as, for example, in studying non-destmctively the elemental composition of fluid inclusions in geological samples. 

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