Geological collections

There are traditional methods used for organizing geological collections that are determined by the way these specimens are used. As geological specimens may be very large and/or heavy, some pieces may have to be stored separately from the main collection. There are also other considerations, such as environmental susceptibilities or toxicity of certain species, that may affect storage decisions. 

At the development planning stage, a reservoir mode/will have been constructed and used to determine the optimum method of recovering the hydrocarbons from the reservoir. The criteria for the optimum solution will most likely have been based on profitability and safety. The model Is Initially based upon a limited data set (perhaps a seismic survey, and say five exploration and appraisal wells) and will therefore be an approximation of the true description of the field. As development drilling and production commence, further data is collected and used to update both the geological model (the description of the structure, environment of deposition, diagenesis and fluid distribution) and the reservoir model (the description of the reservoir under dynamic conditions). 

According to statistics collected by the U.S. Geological Survey (3), U.S. production of cmde talc in 1995 was 1,050,000 metric tons. Montana, Texas, Vermont, and New York were the principal producing U.S. states. Worldwide production was estimated to be 5,845,000 t. China, having 2,400,000 t, was the largest producer in the world after China and the United States, Finland, India, Brazil, France, Italy, and Canada are the next principal producers. World production of talc in 1994 is Hsted in Table 1. 

Other coal sample banks are also in existence. The Penn State Sample Bank at Peimsylvania State University has the most diverse collection of samples (86). The Illinois Basin Coal Sample Program at the Illinois State Geological Survey specializes in samples from the Illinois Basin (89). The European Center for Coal Specimens has a significant collection of samples from the entire world and is located in Eygelshoven in The Netherlands (88). Each makes samples available in kilogram quantities. 

The Failure and Inventory Reporting System (FIRS) program was developed by the Geological Survey Division of the U.S. Department of the Interior for safety and pollution prevention devices on offshore structures that produce or process hydrocarbons. The program collected data on mechanical and some electromechanical systems on offshore oil platforms. About 8,000 failure events were documented. Access has been limited to internal materials management system use. No real-time access or periodic output products have been available. 

Geological surveys require the services of analytical chemists to determine the composition of the numerous rock and soil samples collected in the field. A particular instance of such an exercise is the qualitative and quantitative examination of the samples of moon rock brought back to Earth in 1969 by the first American astronauts to land on the moon. 

Several studies have been conducted to measure methyl parathion in streams, rivers, and lakes. A U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) of western streams detected methyl parathion in five river samples taken from four states during a 14-month period in 1970 and 1971. The amount of methyl parathion detected ranged from 0.04 to 0.23 pg/L (Schultz et al. 1973). A later and more extensive USGS study analyzed water samples from major rivers of the United States four times yearly in the period of 1975-1985. Of the 2,861 water samples, 0.1% had detectable levels of methyl parathion (Gilliom et al. 1985). In a study of Arkansas surface waters, samples of lake and river/stream water were collected and analyzed over a three-year period (Senseman et al. 1997). Of the 485 samples collected, methyl parathion was found in one river/stream sample at a maximum concentration of 3.5 pg/L. Results from an EPA study in California detected methyl parathion in 3 of 18 surface drain effluent samples at concentrations of 10-190 ng/kg. Subsurface drain effluent water had concentrations of 10-170 ng/kg in 8 of 60 samples (lARC 1983). 

J.D. Martin, Quality of Pesticide Data for Environmental Water Samples Collected for the National Water-Quality Assessment Program, 1992-96, and Examples of the Use of Quality-control Information in Water-quality Assessments. US Geological Survey, Washington, DC (1999). Also available on the World Wide Web http //ca.water.usgs. gov/pnsp/rep/qcsuiumary/, accessed August 2002. 

W.W. Lapham, F.D. Wilde, and M. T. Koterba, Ground-Water Data-Collection Protocols and Procedures for the National Water-Quality Assessment Program Selection, Installation, and Documentation of Wells and Collection of Related Data, Open-File Report 95-398, US Geological Survey, Reston, VA (1995). 

F.D. Wilde, D.B. Radtke, J. Gibs, andR.T. Iwatsubo, Collection of Water Samples , in National Field Manual for the Collection of Water-Quality Data , US Geological Survey Techniques of Water Resource Investigations, US Geological Survey, Reston, VA, Book 9, Chapter A4, (1999). 

P. Blunder, B. Bliimich, R. E. Botto, E. Fuku-shima (eds.) 1998, Spatially Resolved Magnetic Resonance Methods, Materials, Medicine, Biology, Rheology, Geology, Ecology, Hardware, VCH, Weinheim, 774 pp. Collected lectures from an MR imaging conference, various fields, also contains chemical engineering and transport. 

The dominating reason behind the problems is clogging of the wells mainly caused by iron precipitation. For this reason the research on ATES is focused on how to collect geological, hydrogeological and hydrochemical data in a proper way in order to design functional systems and wells. 

The site conditions for an on-site landfill, such as location, geology, hydrogeology, physiography, climate, and so on, should also be suitable. Landfill should meet the minimum technology requirements and regulations for hazardous waste landfills such as double liners and leachate collection and removal systems, leak detection systems, closure procedures and final cover, and construction quality assurance.59... 

The purpose of the collection of papers in this volume is to review what can be said about the susceptibility to liquefaction of coals from different parts of the world. We and later authors will present data relative to coals of the areas with which we are familiar. However, with the Editor s approval, we are going to devote the first part of this paper to making some general remarks about coal geology and geochemistry, in the hope that this will provide a useful background to what comes later. 

The remainder of this paper can be restricted to coals of North America, since this is the area for which we have data and in any case other contributors to this collection will deal with the coals of their own areas. The first statement above needs qualification we ourselves have no liquefaction data on Canadian coals, but Ignasiak et al. (48) present some in this collection.Relying, as in the earlier part of this paper, on geological information, we can say that the strata of the North Great Plains and Rocky Mountain provinces continue north into Canada, as does the Pacific province. Nova Scotia contains some Carboniferous coals related to those in the Eastern province. 

Until now, Mercury has only been studied more closely by one spacecraft (Mariner 10, 1974), since its nearness to the sun means that spacecraft approaching it are subject to particularly extreme conditions. NASA s MESSENGER (Mercury Surface, Space, Environment, Geochemistry and Ranging) was launched in 2004 and is planned to reach Mercury in March 2011, and then to orbit the planet. The main tasks of the MESSENGER mission are to map the planet, to make measurements of its magnetic field and to collect data relevant to its geological and tectonic history (Solomon, 2007). 

Figure 9.4. Measured and fitted world annual metal production. The measured world annual metal production data were collected from U.S. Geological Survey-Minerals Information, 1997 Adriano, 1986 Woytinsky and Woytinsky, 1953. Chromium production was calculated from chromite production assuming an average of 27.0% Cr. The fitted Cd data before 1963, were calculated from the world annual Zn production (Cd mainly as a by-product) (after Han et al., 2002a. Reprinted from Naturwissenschaften, 89, Han F.X., Banin A., Su Y., Monts D.L., Plodinec M.J., Kingery W.L., Triplett G.B., Industrial age anthropogenic inputs of heavy metals into the pedosphere, p 499, Copyright (2002), with kind permission of Springer Science and Business Media)...

In connection with our field measurements, samples of geological materials were collected for analyses in the laboratory. Activity concentrations were measured by standard gamma spectrocqpy with a 90-cm3 Ge (Li) detector and a Canberra Model 8100 multichannel analyser. Details on calibration and procedure were published earlier (Stranden, 1985). Rn-222 exhalation measurements were also performed... 

Geologic maps constitute a familiar class of models. To map a sedimentary section, a geologist collects data at certain outcrops. He casts his observations in terms of the local stratigraphy, which is itself a model that simplifies reality by allowing groups of sediments to be lumped together into formations. He then interpolates among his data points (and projects beneath them) to infer positions for formation contacts, faults, and so on across his field area. 

Lico, M. S., Y. K. Kharaka, W. W. Carothers and V. A. Wright, 1982, Methods for collection and analysis of geopressured geothermal and oil field waters. US Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 2194. 

A spatial join of the analytical data with BGS DiGMapGB-50 Superficial Geology returned data for 4,700 soil samples, which had been collected over glacigenic till deposits (Fig.1) of Mid-Pleistocene, Anglian age. 

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