Fundamental chemistry

Although the major emphasis of the work in the Loker Institute was and is directed in the broadest sense toward the study of the fundamental chemistry of hydrocarbons, substantial and increasing emphasis is also directed to the aspects of hydrocarbon transformations as well as of derived polymeric and varied synthetic materials. 

Inorganic Materials. Sol—gel chemistry involves first the formation of a sol, which is a suspension of soHd particles in a Hquid, then of a gel, which is a diphasic material with a soHd encapsulating a solvent. A detailed description of the fundamental chemistry is available in the Hterature (2—4). The chemistry involving the most commonly used precursors, the alkoxides (M(OR) ), can be described in terms of two classes of reactions ... 

The fundamental chemistry and engineering requirements of the process have been studied and ate described elsewhere (23,24). 

Carbonates. Actinide carbonate complexes are of interest not only because of their fundamental chemistry and environmental behavior (150), but also because of extensive industrial appHcations, primarily in uranium recovery from ores and nuclear fuel reprocessing. 

Thousands of technical papers and many books have been written on the subject of phenolic resins. The polymer is used in hundreds of diverse applications and in very large volumes. It is used worldwide. In fact the term phenolic resin encompasses a wide variety of materials based on a broad range of phenols and co-monomers. In this short article, we cannot expect complete coverage. Our hope is that we can provide an understanding of the fundamental chemistries, uses, and values of these materials as well as enough references to permit the interested reader to begin his own exploration of the topic. 

Institute for Fundamental Chemistry 34-4 Nishihiraki-cho, Takano, Sakyo-ku Kyoto 606-8103, Japan... 

We are grateful to financial support from the project of Institute for Fundamental Chemistry, supported by the Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science -Research for the Future Program (JSPS-RFTF98P00206). 

KT is grateful to financial support from the project of Institute for Fundamental Chemistry, supported by the Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science -Research for the Future Program (JSPS-RFTF98P00206). ME thanks the support from Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Priority Area (Carbon Alloys, No. 09243105, 1997). W-KH and MT thank The Royal Society for financial assistance. 

M. Somei (Kanazawa University, Japan) has reviewed the many significant advances in indole chemistry that have recently become possible through the application of N-hydroxyindole intermediates. Much of the fundamental chemistry of this class was accomplished in Professor Somei s laboratories. 

The following pages will describe several examples of pyrochemical processing as applied to the recycle of plutonium, and will briefly review the fundamental chemistry of these processes. We shall review the conversion of plutonium oxide to plutonium metal by the direct oxide reduction process (DOR),the removal of americium from metallic plutonium by molten salt extraction (MSE), and the purification of metallic... 

Metal polysulfido complexes have attracted much interest not only from the viewpoint of fundamental chemistry but also because of their potential for applications. Various types of metal polysulfido complexes have been reported as shown in Fig. 1. The diversity of the structures results from the nature of sulfur atoms which can adopt a variety of coordination environments (mainly two- and three-coordination) and form catenated structures with various chain lengths. On the other hand, transition metal polysulfides have attracted interest as catalysts and intermediates in enzymatic processes and in catalytic reactions of industrial importance such as the desulfurization of oil and coal. In addition, there has been much interest in the use of metal polysulfido complexes as precursors for metal-sulfur clusters. The chemistry of metal polysulfido complexes has been studied extensively, and many reviews have been published [1-10]. 

A challenge related to the problems of reactor design and engineering is the modehng and study of the fundamental chemistry occtrrring in manufactrrring processes for semiconductors, optical fibers, magnetic media, and interconnection. 

The fundamental chemistry of carotenoid radicals and the reactions with oxidizing agents, peroxy radicals, etc., is important for evaluating the proposed actions of... 

The field of chemical oceanography/marine chemistry considers many processes and concepts that are not normally included in a traditional chemical curriculum. While this fact makes the application of chemistry to the study of the oceans difficult, it does not mean that fundamental chemical principles cannot be applied. The chapters included in this book provide examples of important chemical oceanographic processes, all taking place within the basic framework of fundamental chemistry. There are three principal concepts that establish many of the chemical distributions and processes and make the ocean a unique place to practice the art of chemistry (1) the high ionic strength of seawater, (2) the presence of a complex mixture of organic compounds, and (3) the sheer size of the oceans. 

Further information is needed on the fundamental chemistry, mechanism of action, and toxicity of the newer economic poisons. An outline is presented of a research program that emphasizes the breadth and scope of the problem and the variety of re-search and educational needs. 

The fundamental chemistry, especially of the newer economic poisons, is of primary importance. The mechanism of action of the various types of economic poisons and the relation of structure to toxicity of insects are of fundamental interest. Chemical versus biological methods of evaluation should be presented. Performance methods of evaluation of these chemicals have been given careful consideration by several workers. Emphasis was placed by several workers on the need for much additional information on various aspects of the problem regarding the use of DDT, 2,4-D, and other pesticides. There is direct importance in studies on the metabolism of DDT. 

One of the authors (ML) is grateful to Fukui Institute for Fundamental Chemistry, Kyoto University for a Fukui Institute Fellowship. The present work was in part supported by a CREST (Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology) grant in the Area of High Performance Computing for Multi-scale and Multi-physics Phenomena from the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST). 

In this investigation, a labelled donor solvent was used to determine which structural positions in the coal products incorporate deuterium and to investigate the exchange of protium in the coal with deuterium in the donor solvent. It is important to understand this fundamental chemistry because a number of pilot plants use donor solvents (15-17). The yields of liquefied coal products may be improved through a detailed understanding of the hydrogenation mechanisms. 

Numerous implications on the fundamental chemistry of coal liquefaction can be drawn from the observed reaction of solvent isomerization and adduction. The literature indicates that... 

Redox reactions involving nitric oxide have important implications beyond their fundamental chemistry as demonstrated by the controversy in the biomedical literature regarding conditions under which generation of NO leads to the amelioration or the exacerbation of oxidative stress in mammalian systems (95). Oxidative stress is defined as a disturbance in the balance between production of reactive oxygen species (pro-oxidants) and antioxidant defenses (96). Reactive oxygen species include free radicals and peroxides as well as other reactants such as oxidative enzymes with metal ion sites in high oxidation states. The... 

Patterns for addition of the Schwartz reagent to multiple C—C bonds in terms of regio-and stereochemistry are well-established for most substituents, as is the fundamental chemistry of the newly formed Csp2—Zr and Csp3—Zr bonds. Conversion to halides and... 

On the other hand, an investigator interested in the fundamental chemistry rather than in the optimisation of the reaction conditions (from the commercial point of view) would naturally refrain from preparing, and then using after a variable storage-time, a solution of aluminium halide in alkyl halide, because the rapid reactions which can occur in such systems at all but the lowest temperatures would obscure largely the true nature of the initiator. For such studies it is necessary to introduce the monomer into a freshly prepared initiator solution, or to introduce into a solution of the monomer the solid initiator or a freshly prepared solution of initiator in a very pure and inert solvent. 

Research in fundamental chemistry, physical chemistry, and chemical physics was carried out only at Paris, Nancy, and Strasbourg. Advanced physical chemistry was taught only at four universities in France immediately after the Second World War. 132 As we saw in chapter 6, the interest of Prevost and Kirrmann in ionic and electronic theories of reaction mechanisms developed later than in England and took a different turn than the Robinson-Ingold theory. 133... 

Green chemistry aims to design the hazards out of chemical products and processes, including solvents. With ionic liquids, you do not have the same concerns as you have with, for example, volatile organic solvents, which can contribute to air pollution. Ionic liquid chemistry is a very new area that is not only extremely interesting from a fundamental chemistry point of view, but could also have a very large impact on industry. 

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