Full costing

Gasohol in the United States. Over 90% of the fuel ethanol in the United States is produced from com. Typically, 0.035 m (1 bushel) of com yields 9.5 L (2.5 gal) of ethanol. Ethanol is produced by either dry or wet milling (87). Selection of the process depends on market demand for the by-products of the two processes. More than two-thirds of the ethanol in the United States is produced by wet milling. Depending on the process used, the full cost of ethanol after by-product credits has been estimated to be between 0.25—0.53/L ( 1—2/gal) for new plants (88). Eeedstock costs are a significant factor in the production of fuel ethanol. A change in com price of 0.29/m ( 1.00/bushel) affects the costs of ethanol by 0.08/L ( 0.30/gal). 

As air pollution management moves forward, economics has a major role in reducing pollution. Multimedia considerations are forcing a blend of traditional emission reduction approaches and innovative methods for waste minimization. These efforts are directed toward full cost accounting of the life cycle of products and residuals from the manufacturing, use, and ultimate disposal of materials. 

Shoup, D., and Bremholt M. (1997). Employer-Paid Parking A Natiomride Suivey of Employers Parking Subsidy Policies. In The Full Costs and Benefits of Transportation, eds. D. L. Greene, D. Jones, and M. A. Delucchi. Berlin Springer. 

The cost of corrective actions is not a consideration in the OS HA regulations, but it must be considered as part of the analysis. Because of the critical timeline that governs an OSHA-mandated investigation, a full cost-benefit analysis may not be possible. However, the investigating... 

The full cost of acrylonitrile manufacture based on methane was about 22)4/lb in 1960 (allowing 15% return). But the marginal cost—with no capital charges or overheads—was only 7 /lb. The full cost of propylene ammoxidation (with 15% return) was about 13-16ff/lb according to location. Thus, as soon as it was clear that ammoxidation was likely to... 

The exercises described below will help the organic farmer to decide whether an enterprise should be started, expanded, modified, or even discontinued. There are different methods of costing absorption or full costing, and marginal or variable costing. These have different uses which are discussed below. 

The Directive (article 25) allows for full cost recovery and HSE s proposals are that this will be collected in two ways by fees and by a general industry charge (GIC). A fee will be charged to directly identifiable customers e.g. those who apply for authorisation of a biocidal product whilst the GIC will be payable by all with biocidal products on the market. It will cover the costs of work such as monitoring, specific biocides research work etc. it is likely to start on 14 May 2000. 

The indemnity fee-for-service model protects the patient from catastrophic medical expenses but has its own set of potential problems. There is little incentive for either the provider or the patient to control costs. The patient pays less than the full cost of care, creating an incentive to use more care. The provider is paid on a fee-for-service basis and thus can generate more income by providing more services. The health care... 

The development and initial production of any new reference material would require initial funding. Proceeds from the sales of the material could then be used towards the production of replacement materials. The full cost of the production and distribution of the material might be recovered in time, particularly for widely-used materials for which no further development is needed the research activities using these reference materials would then bear future costs directly. 

In 2002-3 there were 158.5 million community PBS prescriptions -132.7 million (83.7%) to concessional patients (pensioners, seniors, repatriation health beneficiaries) and 25.9 million to general patients. In addition, about 42.1 million prescriptions did not attract a subsidy - 26 million below the co-pa)unent threshold and about 16.1 million private prescriptions, that is, prescriptions for drugs not listed on the PBSorRPBS, for which the consumer pays the full cost of the medicine. Thus 79.0% of prescriptions were for items subsidised through the PBS. 

There are two safety net thresholds. For general patients, once a patient has spent AUD 874.90 on PBS medicines, the patient co-payment decreases to the concessional level of AUD 4.60 for the rest of the calendar year. For concessional patients the safety net threshold is AUD 239.20. Once concessional patients reach this level they receive PBS items free of charge for the rest of the calendar year. From 1 August 2003 information about the full cost of each item has been included on the label of the medicine, so that consumers will be better informed. 

Doyle JJ, Casciano JP, Arikian SR, et al. Full-cost determination of different levels of care in the intensive care unit. PharmacoEconomics 1996 10 395 08. 

Full cost accounting Method of pricing goods and services to reflect their true costs, including production, use recycling, and disposal. 

Insurance plans around the world that had traditionally covered the full cost of prescription drugs have begun, in the last decade or so, to impose either deductibles or various forms of tiered cost sharing on patients. 

For example, if the preferred list of drugs used by the plan (called the formulary) does not include a desired drug, participants pay the full cost. More generally, critics say that the reliance on profit-seeking insurance companies and Medicare Advantage HMOs rather than on direct government payments raises costs to elderly consumers. 

How heavily these direct and indirect cost factors weigh on plant fitness depends on the plant species and its growing conditions. Induction of extrafloral nectar production, however, allows plants to minimize almost all of these cost factors simultaneously. In the absence of herbivory, nectar production and its associated costs may be all but eliminated, with the full costs only being assumed during periods of herbivory. 

Given such large investment costs and risks, very little innovative pharmaceutical research would take place in a free market system. The reason is that an innovator would bear the full cost of its failures, but would be unable to profit from its successes because competitors would copy or retro-engineer its invention (effectively free-riding on its effort) and then drive down the price close to the marginal cost of production. This is a classic instance of market failure leading to a collectively irrational (Pareto-suboptimal) outcome in which medical innovation is undersupplied by the market. 

It is necessary to include the full cost of auxiliary services, e.g. steam, water and electricity supply and distribution, roads, buildings, communications, etc., in the capital cost estimate for a new plant. If a chemical plant is to be constructed on an existing complex, then a proportion of the cost of existing services (based upon the estimated consumption) is usually charged. A very approximate estimate of the cost of auxiliaiy services can be obtained by taking 20-25% of the total installed (new) plant cost. However, in some situations a figure of 40-70% may be more appropriate. It must be emphasised that a more accurate estimate should be obtained during the preparation of the feasibility study. 

The actual investment pattern will be driven by investors reactions to current or anticipated margins, but the end result will be that their returns will be impacted by the level of returns needed to attract enough new capacity to meet demand growth. Not all investments will have equal full cost, and the lower-cost investments will achieve returns above cost of capital. 

New "high full cost" capacity needed to meet long-term... 

We have used the concept of the full cost curve and determination of the margins... 

Determine the relative economics (cash cost and full cost) and available future supply of product from various regions and technologies. Consider potential technology developments and potential changes in relative prices of feedstocks. 

Fly-up margins for the existing plant will relate to the average price/margin needed by the highest full cost new plant... 

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