Four causes

Adverse consequences of drinking include a variety of social, legal, medical, and psychiatric problems (Babor et al. 1987, 2003). Alcohol is among the top four causes of mortality in 1988, 107,800 deaths, or about 5% of all deaths in the United States, were attributed to alcohol-related causes (Stinson and DeBakey 1992). Approximately 17% of alcohol-related deaths were directly attributable to alcohol, 38% resulted from diseases indirecdy attributable to alcohol, and 45% were attributable to alcohol-related traumatic injury (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 1994). Alcohol-related mortality declined during the latter part of the twentieth century. For example, the age-adjusted mortality rate from liver cirrhosis in 1993 (7.9 deaths per 100,000 persons) was just over half the rate in 1970 (14.6 deaths per 100,000) (Saadat-mand et al. 1997), and the proportion of automobile fatalities that was related to the use of alcohol fell to a two-decade low of 33.6% in 1993 (Lane et al. 1997). 

How could the Evergreen Project hope to succeed where so many talented researchers and managers had failed Where had they gone wrong Essentially, we believed that many of the problems with earlier research could be attributed to four causes. These were limited resources an artificial separation between theory and practice prematurely arriving at the truth about the causes of success and underestimating the difficulty of the fundamental research problem (Joyce, 2005a). 

The extent to which form and matter and the closely related concepts of actuality and potentiality are present in the Organon is debatable. Although matter is not mentioned in the Organon, there is evidence at Posterior Analytics 94a20-95al0 that Aristode had developed his four-cause scheme of explanation by the time he wrote the Posterior Analytics. Such a scheme obviously includes both form and matter. Scholars have questioned the extent to which Aristode s use of four causes in the Posterior Analytics is evidence that he had a fully developed four-cause scheme of explanation when... 

Hydroesterification is not a well-established industrial process yet. Several esters or carboxylic acids are made by a multistep synthesis with hydroformylation followed by an oxidation step and, if needed, a further esterification step. The lower economic importance of hydroesterification compared to hydroformylation is due to four causes, as determined by Kiss [59] ... 

You should have noticed four causes in the announcement ... 

In addition to the four elements of earth, water, air, and fire, Aristotle also included the four qualities and the four causes. The four qualities were set in contrasting pairs hot/cool, wet/dry. At the simplest level, the qualities linked the four elements the combination of water and air was wet, while fire and earth was dry. There was a deeper purpose to the qualities, however. They were necessary to explain the observed condition of physical objects, since the simple proportions of each element was not sufficient. For example, blood could not simply be described as a particular mixture of water and fire elements, since it was qualitatively different from bile but must have some of the same elemental makeup. 

Although elements and qualities were useful, they did not provide a complete description of matter, since matter must have a form. That form must be applied to the matter by an active principle (the creator or former of matter) and for a certain purpose, since nothing in Aristotle s system of nature existed for no purpose. To complete any description, these facts must also be accounted for, and that was the role of the four causes. The four causes were formal, efficient, material, and final. The easiest way to understand them is to consider the building of a brick wall. If we look at a wall, we can identify the elements and the qualities by observation, but, to understand what the wall is, we must also recognize its form, origins, and purpose. 

Large-scale mutations can be due to one of the following four causes ... 

Whilst the interaction forces between two molecules cannot rigorously be split up into contributions arising from diflferent effects, it is often a help to make some such separation and we shall do it here. If we deal only with simple, closed-shell diamagnetic molecules, of which the water molecule is one, then the interaction energy between two such molecules can be considered as arising from four causes (i) electrostatic interaction between the permanent multipole moments of the two molecules (ii) electrostatic interaction between the permanent multipole moments of one molecule and the moments which these induce in the other molecule because of its finite polarizability (iii) an interaction of quantum origin between the instantaneous fluctuating dipole moments of the two molecules (dispersion forces) (iv) an inter-... 

In the lawsuits following the 1995 B757 Cali accident, American Airlines was held liable for the crash based on the Colombian investigators blaming crew error entirely for the accident. The official accident investigation report cited the following four causes for the loss [2] ... 

According to Snook, the military community has generally accepted these four causes as the explanation for the shootdown. 

Vascular Diseases. Stroke ranks in the top four causes of death in many countries and accounts for a large proportion of the neurological disease... 

Workplace violence is recognized as a serious occupational hazard, ranking among the top four causes of death in workplaces during the past 15 years. More than 3,000 people died from workplace homicide between 2006 and 2010, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). More than 15,000 people are injured by workplace violence each year. 

Water Excess. Sometimes excessive water accumulates in the tissues, specifically the interstitial compartment. Outwardly, this condition is noted as swelling and it may occur in any area of the body. It is called edema, though some may still call it dropsy. In general, there are four causes of edema (1) elevated fluid pressure in the capillaries as in heart failure (2) low osmotic pressure in the blood due to decreased blood protein in such conditions as liver cirrhosis, kidney disease, severe burns, and starvation (3) blockage of the lymph vessels as caused by the parasitic worm, filariae, in the disease elephantiasis or (4) increased capillary permeability due to the release of histamine in allergic reactions. Edema may require the restriction of dietary sodium and/or diuretics. 

For example, in the construction industry there are four leading causes of construction-related deaths. They are falls (from elevation)— 33%, struck by (a vehicle, falling material, etc.)— 22%, caught-in/between (excavation collapse)—18%, shock (electrical)—17%, while all other types make up 10% of these deaths. At present Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) conducts focused inspections of construction worksites, where it looks specifically for these hazards or for the lack of controls for each of these four causes of construction deaths. 

Bensaude-Vincent has remarked that an essential tension remains intrinsic to chemistry between the two conceptual frameworks of the Aristotelian notion of mixt and the Lavoisieran notion of compound. She has argued that composite materials, which replace natural material resources by synthetic ones, invite a return to Aristotle s four causes and his notion of mixt [Bensaude-Vincent, 1998, 18]. For the greater part of modern chemistry, by focussing on stoichiometric compounds, the enigma of the true mixt was simply discarded [Bensaude-Vincent, 2008, 54]. 

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