Electromagnetic bosons

Fig. 2.14. Electromagnetic and weak interactions mediated by virtual boson exchange, q is the 4-momentum transferred in the interaction. Adapted from Perkins (1982).

This effect resembles the traditional Casimir effect, which describes the attraction between two parallel metallic mirrors in vacuum. Here, however, the fluctuating (bosonic) electromagnetic fields are replaced by fermionic matter fields. Furthermore, the Casimir energy is inferred from the geometry-dependent part of the density of states, and its sign is not fixed, but oscillates according to the relative arrangement and distances of the cavities. 

The second Higgs field acts in such a way that if the vacuum expectation value is zero, ( ) = 0, then the symmetry breaking mechanism effectively collapses to the Higgs mechanism of the standard SU(2) x U(l) electroweak theory. The result is a vector electromagnetic gauge theory 0(3)/> and a broken chiral SU(2) weak interaction theory. The mass of the vector boson sector is in the A(3) boson plus the W and Z° particles. 

Particle groups, like fermions, can also be divided into the leptons (such as the electron) and the hadrons (such as the neutron and proton). The hadrons can interact via the nuclear or strong interaction while the leptons do not. (Both particle types can, however, interact via other forces, such as the electromagnetic force.) Figure 1.4 contains artistic conceptions of the standard model, a theory that describes these fundamental particles and their interactions. Examples of bosons, leptons, hadrons, their charges, and masses are given in Table 1.6. 

The force carrier (or exchange ) particles are all bosons. These particles are responsible for carrying the four fundamental forces. This family includes the strong interaction carrier, the gluon the weak interaction carriers, the W and Z° the carrier of the electromagnetic force, the photon and the postulated but unobserved carrier of the gravitational force, the graviton. 

One of these is the superheavy Crowell boson [42], associated with index (3) in the ((1),(2),(3)) basis, and the other two are massive photons associated with indices (1) and (2). The superheavy Crowell boson comes from electroweak theory with an SU(2) electromagnetic sector and may have been observed in a LEP collaboration at CERN [44,56],... 

Now we relax the condition that A3 = 0. This statement would physically mean that the current for this gauge boson is highly nonconserved with a very large mass so that the interaction scale is far smaller than the scale for the cyclic electromagnetic field. In relaxing this condition we will find that we still have a violation of current conservation. 

If we consider non-Abelian electromagnetism, we have a situation where the vector potential component A3, vanish and where A(11= A, . The annulment of the components A3, has been studied in the context of the unification of non-Abelian electromagnetism and weak interactions, where on the physical vacuum of the broken symmetry SU(2) x SU(2) the vector boson corresponding to A3, is very massive and vanishes on low-energy scales. This means that the 3-component of the magnetic field is then... 

The total Lagrangian X = JS G + JS D + JS , then involves the interaction between fermions and the gauge field. The Dirac field will be generically considered to be the electron and the gauge theory will be considered to be the non-Abelian electromagnetic field. The theory then describes the interaction between electrons and photons. A gauge theory involves the conveyance of momentum form one particle (electron) to another by the virtual creation and destruction of a vector boson (photon) that couples to the two electrons. The process can be diagrammatically represented as... 

The existence of this propagator will be the largest addition to the physics of electroweak interactions when electromagnetism is nonAbelian. Further discussion on the subject of 51/(2) x 51/(2) electroweak theory is given by the authors in [4], Estimates on the mass of this boson are around four times the mass of the Zo boson and should be observable with the CERN Large Hadron Collider. 

In the conventional formalism, as the p term does not appear, B L Jo. Now, in Roscoe s framework, as p 0, B is not perpendicular to the current flow, and therefore has a component in the direction of the current flow. It has been shown that the magnetization effects similar to the inverse Faraday effect (IFF) can be expected for appropriate polarization states of the transmitted radiation. Moreover, a massive vector boson can be constructed from the electromagnetic field so that it can be interpreted only as a nonzero mass photon. Here, the model suggested for photon can be interpreted as a bound system with discrete mass and frequency states. This may have important role in explaining redshift phenomena. 

Since Covalon is a spin-paired boson (not fermion) conventional electromagnetic effect from electron-current flow will not be expected and must be studied and explored separately. 

The procedure, known as second quantization, developed as an essential first step in the formulation of quantum statistical mechanics, which, as in the Boltzmann version, is based on the interaction between particles. In the Schrodinger picture the only particle-like structures are associated with waves in 3N-dimensional configuration space. In the Heisenberg picture particles appear by assumption. Recall, that in order to substantiate the reality of photons, it was necessary to quantize the electromagnetic field as an infinite number of harmonic oscillators. By the same device, quantization of the scalar r/>-field, defined in configuration space, produces an equivalent description of an infinite number of particles in 3-dimensional space [35, 36]. The assumed symmetry of the sub-space in three dimensions decides whether these particles are bosons or fermions. The crucial point is that, with their number indeterminate, the particles cannot be considered individuals [37], but rather as intuitively understandable 3-dimensional waves - (Born) -with a continuous density of energy and momentum - (Heisenberg). 

In the second example BCS theory relates the appearance of a superconducting state to the breakdown of electromagnetic gauge symmetry by interaction with regular ionic lattice phonons and the creation of bosonic excitations. This theory cannot be extended to deal with high Tc ceramic superconductors and it correlates poorly with normal-state properties, such as the Hall effect, of known superconductors. It is therefore natural to look for alternative models that apply to all forms of superconductivity. 

The dominant interaction within the muonium atom is electromagnetic. This can be treated most accurately within the framework of bound state Quantum Electrodynamics (QED). There are also contributions from weak interaction which arise from Z°-boson exchange and from strong interaction due to vacuum polarization loops with hadronic content. Standard theory, which encompasses all these forces, allows to calculate the level energies of muonium to the required level of accuracy for all modern precision experiments1. 

---