Electrochemical detection, application

Qian, J., Wu Y., Yang, H., and Michael, A.C., An integrated decoupler for capillary electrophoresis with electrochemical detection application to analysis of brain microdialysate, Anal. Chem. 71, 4486, 1999. 

Aravagiri M, Marder SR, Van Putten T, et al. Determination of risperidone in plasma by high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection application to therapeutic drug monitoring in schizophrenic patients. J Pharm Sci 1993 82 447-449. 

Liaw WJ, Ho AT, Wang JJ, Hu OYP, Li JH Determination of morphine by high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection application to human and rabbit pharmacokinetic studies. J Chromatogr B 1998 714 237-45. 

C.M. Riley and A.K. Runyan, High-perfomance liquid chromatography of anthracycline antibiotics with electrochemical detection. Application to the clinical pharmacokinetics of 4 -deoxyrubicin, J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal., 1987,5, 33 3. 

D.R. Abemethy, E.L. Todd, J.L. Egan and G. Camim, Labetalol analysis in human plasma using liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection. Application to pharmacokinetic studies, J. Liq. Chromatogr., 1986, 9, 2153-2163. 

J.E. Torres-Lopez, M.B. Robles, J. Perez-Urizar, F.J. Hores-Murrieta and V. Granados-Soto, Determination of diclofenac in micro-whole blood samples by high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection. Application in a pharmacokinetic study, Arzneimittelforschung, 1997, 47, 1040-1043. 

F. de Cazanove, J.M. Kinowski, M. Audran, A. Rochette and F. Bressolle, Determination of nalbuphine in human plasma by high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection. Application to a pharmacokinetic study. J. Chromatogr. B, 1997, 690, 203-210. 

Fischer LM, Tenje M, Heiskanen AR, Masuda N, Castillo J, Bentien A, Emneus J, Jakob-sen MH, Boisen A. Gold cleaning methods for electrochemical detection applications. Microelectron Eng 2009 86(4—6) 1282—1285. 

Quian, J. Wu, Y. Yang, H. Michael, A.C. An Integrated Decoupler for Capillary Electrophoresis with Electrochemical Detection Application to Analysis of Brain Microdialysate. Anal. Chem. 1999 71, 4486-4492. 

Hernandez, G. Abreu, P. Alonso, R. Calzadilla, C.H. Determination of pineal melatonin by high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection application for rhythm studies and tissue explants, J.Pineal Res., 1990,8, 11 19. 

Martin-Calero, A., Pino, V., Ayala, J.H., Gonzalez, V. Alfonso, A.M. (2009). Ionic liquids as mobile phase additives in high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection Application to the determination of heterocyclic aromatic amines in meat-based infant foods. Talanta Vol.79 (No.3) 590-597. 

According to a Macherey-Nagel application note [35], a mixture of 20 ng each of (i)-cysteine, (L)-glutathione, and (L)-penicillamine was resolved in less than 12 min by HPLC. The method used a Nucleosil 100-5SA column (15 cm x 4.6 mm i.d.) with aqueous 4.5 g/L ammonium citrate-6 g/L phosphoric acid at pH 2.2 as the mobile phase (eluted at 1 mL/min) and electrochemical detection at a gold electrode polarized at +800 mV. 

Many other selective techniques such as MS, FT-IR, ICP-MS, and electrochemical detection have also been used and several reviews of FIA applications in pharmaceutical analysis appear in the literature.214-216 Several articles are dedicated to pharmaceutical analysis using SIA.217218 FIA and SIA have been applied to high-throughput analysis (up to 200 samples per hour with good... 

Most compounds can be detected directly as they are able to produce a direct analytical signal. Photometric detection, especially UV (including diode array and multi-wavelength UV detection) is by far the most frequently applied detection technique. The application of mass spectrometry (MS) detection in CE is attractive as it can provide structural information [44]. Hologram-based refractive index detection [45] and electrochemical detection [46,47] were also reported. Conductivity [41,48-50] and amperometric [51,52] detection has shown to have advantages for the analysis of both organic and inorganic compounds. 

Craffeo AP, Riggin RM. 1978. The application of electrochemical detection to the HPLC analysis of nonvolatile pollutants. In Proceedings 4th joint conference on Sensory Environmental Pollution, 637-639. 

Research has been done showing that rapid pressnre-driven LC analysis can be done with little solvent consumption, demonstrating this as a viable process analytical tool. Using electrokinetic nanoflow pumps LC can be miniaturized to the point of being a sensor system. Developments in terms of sampling to enable sampling directly from a process stream, to the separation channel on a chip are critical for the application of miniaturized process LC. The components (valves and pumps) required for hydrodynamic flow systems appear to be a current limitation to the fnll miniatnrization of LC separations. Detection systems have also evolved with electrochemical detection and refractive index detection systems providing increased sensitivity in miniaturized systems when compared to standard UV-vis detection or fluorescence, which may require precolumn derivatization. 

A major consequence of using regulatory limits based on degradant formation, rather than absolute change of the API level in the drug product, is that it necessitates the application and routine use of very sensitive analytical techniques [ 10]. In addition, the need to resolve both structurally similar, as well as structurally diverse degradants of the API, mandates the use of analytical separation techniques, for example, HPLC, CE, often coupled with highly sensitive detection modes, for example, ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy, fluorescence (F) spectroscopy, electrochemical detection (EC), mass spectroscopy (MS), tandem mass spectroscopy (MS-MS) and so forth. 

A Wang, Y Fang. Applications of capillary electrophoresis with electrochemical detection in pharmaceutical and biomedical analyses. Electrophoresis 21 1281-1290, 2000. 

Kotani, A., Kojima, S., Hakamata, H., Jin, D., and Kusu, R, Determination of honokiol and magnolol by micro HPLC with electrochemical detection and its application to the distribution analysis in branches and leaves of Magnolia obovata. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin (Tokyo) 53(3), 319-322, 2005. 

---