Deoxyribonucleic acid, sequence determination

The discovery of the base-paired, double-helical structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) provides the theoretic framework for determining how the information coded into DNA sequences is replicated and how these sequences direct the synthesis of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins. Already clinical medicine has taken advantage of many of these discoveries, and the future promises much more. For example, the biochemistry of the nucleic acids is central to an understanding of virus-induced diseases, the immune re-sponse, the mechanism of action of drugs and antibiotics, and the spectrum of inherited diseases. 

Three major components in the transmission of genetic information are deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA), ribonucleic acids (RNA), and proteins. The genetic code expressed through DNA ultimately determines which proteins a cell will produce. Coiled and supercoiled DNA molecules contain numerous sequences of nucleotides that may be transcribed as RNAs and translated to many different proteins. DNA molecules also contain long sequences of nucleotides not coding for protein and whose purpose is not completely understood. A gene is a specific sequence of DNA that encodes a sequence of messenger... 

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)—Carrier of genetic material that determines inheritance of traits. DNA is in chromosomes in every cell of the body except red blood cells and is copied when cells divide. DNA molecules are shaped like a double helix, and are composed of sequences of four bases adenosine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). The sequence of the bases directs production of particular proteins by determining the sequence of amino acids in proteins. The double-helk structure of DNA helps it transmit genetic information. 

What s DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid, the helical ladderlike chain of molecules that makes up genes. DNA consists of a sugar molecule called deoxyribose (it is somewhat related to glucose), a nitrogen-containing molecule called a base, and phosphate atoms bonded to the other two components. It is the sequence of base pairs (one base on each strand) in DNA that determines the end-product (e.g., protein). The human genome— the entire DNA content of a human being—contains approximately 3 billion base pairs. 

Vanadium chloroperoxidase (C. inaequalis) is a 67,488 Da protein that comprises 609 amino acid residues, as determined from deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequence analysis [20], As isolated, V-CIPO may contain a variable content of vanadium, depending on the concentration of vanadate in the growth medium however, one vanadium(V) per subunit can be achieved by addition of excess vanadate to the growth medium or to the purified protein [3,71] Like V-BrPO, V-CIPO is stable in the presence of organic substrates, to elevated temperatures, and to the presence of high concentrations of strong oxidants (e.g., HOC1) [59],... 

It is possible that in the future we may recognize Kossel s idea of the anlage, a basic protein determiner found in all cells, to be the modern-day equivalent of the coat or masking protein which actually determines the particular areas of the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecule which are to function in RNA (ribonucleic acid) formation in a given cell—that is, Kossel s anlage may be the intellectual antecedent of the principle of cellular differentiation as viewed by many today. On the other hand, if such kindness to our predecessors is to be extended to the ideas of Richard Block, who transformed KossePs anlage first to the basic amino acids (7) and then to common peptides, it can easily be said that the concept of the common active site sequence of many enzymes (20) is what Block meant when he inferred that a peptide anlage determined the function of many proteins. 

Figure 8. An enzymatic method for determining the nucleotide sequence of a deoxyribonucleic acid...

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA). The structure of DNA is well known. Its function is to transmit genetic information. The characteristics of all cells are determined by their proteins, particularly the enzymes. The characteristics of a protein are in turn determined by its unique sequence of amino acid residues. DNA contains the master plan for protein formation in its base sequence. The particular sequence of the bases adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) thus represent a code. Since all proteins consist of 20 different L-amino acids, the genetic code then directs the varying sequences specific for a given protein. 

Erederick Sanger is surely one of the most outstanding biochemists of modern times. His methods for determining the exact sequence of amino acids in proteins and of nucleotides in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) have won him numerous awards, including two Nobel Prizes in chemistry. 

We have seen the importance of amino acid sequence in determining protein structure and function. If the amino acid sequence in a protein is incorrect, the protein is unlikely to function properly. How do our bodies constantly synthesize the many thousands of different proteins—each with the correct amino acid sequence— that we need to survive What ensures that proteins have the correct amino acid sequence The answer to this question lies in nucleic acids. Nucleic acids contain a chemical code that specifies the correct amino acid sequences for proteins. Nucleic acids can be divided into two types deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA, which exists primarily in the nucleus of the cell and ribonucleic acid or RNA, which is found throughout the entire interior of the cell. 

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)—a nucleic acid that carries the genetic information in the cell and is capable of self-replication and synthesis of RNA. DNA consists of two long chains of nucleotides twisted into a double helix and joined by hydrogen bonds between the complementary bases adenine and thymine, or cytosine and guanine. The sequence of nucleotides determines individual hereditary characteristics. 

Deoxyribonucleic Acids as Genetic Material. The substance that makes up the hereditary factors or genes is deoxyribonucleic acid. In general, the current concept is that for each individual gene there is as the chemical equivalent an appropriate DNA characterized by a definite base sequence. The information carried by the gene and finally expressed as a particular character consists in the sequence of the bases. The base sequence in turn determines the primary structure, i.e., the sequence of amino acids, of proteins. There is a direct correlation A certain group of bases of the DNA stands for a certain amino acid in the final protein. 

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