Deciduous

The composition of a number of fmit juices and juice drinks is given in Table 1. Figure 1 describes many of the steps in the production of fmit juices. The processing of citms and deciduous fmit into juice is discussed separately. Citms have a thick, relatively tough peel that must be kept separate from the juice during extraction. Deciduous fmit are cmshed whole and the juice is then separated from the pulp, peel, and seeds, usually in a pressing operation. 

Fig. 1. Manufacturing process for citrus (orange) and deciduous (apple) juices.

Concentration and Aroma Recovery. Concentration of juice from deciduous fmit is best carried out using an evaporator that causes as httle thermal degradation as possible and that permits recovery of volatile materials important to the aroma of the fresh fmit, ie, essence. Evaporators that use a high temperature for a short time and operate under a vacuum, such as the APV Crepaco falling film plate evaporator or the Alfa Laval centrifugal... 

Essences generally are stored separately from the bulk concentrates for stabiHty, and their addition prior to retail packaging is essential to restoring much of the natural fresh flavor of the starting juice otherwise lost during processing. Unlike citms, which affords both an aqueous and an oil-phase essence, only an aqueous-phase essence is obtained for deciduous fmit. Virtually no essential oil is present in the peel or juice in the latter. 

Cyhexatin [13121 -70-5], tricyclohexylhydroxystannane (147) (mp 195°C), rat oral 540 mg/kg, and fenbutatin oxide [13356-08-6], hexakis-(2-methyl-2-phenylpropyl)distannoxane (148) (mp 138°C), rat oral LD q 2630 mg/kg, are two novel tin acaricides used on deciduous fmits. They are inhibitors of oxidative phosphorylation. 

Avermectins and Ivermectin. The avermectias are pentacycHc lactones isolated from fermentation products of Streptomjces avermitilis and ivermectin is a semisynthetic chemical, 22,23-dihydroavermectia (46). Ivermectin is effective in very low doses for the control of red spider mites on deciduous fmits, in baits for the control of imported fire ants, and as a parasiticide for Onchocerca volvulus in humans and for catde gmbs. These insecticides appear to function as agonists for the neuroinhibitory transmitter y-aminobutyric acid (GABA) (see Antiparasitic agents, avermectins). 

The viscosity of the spray oil, as measured by the Saybolt test, also determines its safety on plants. Other properties being equal, oils of low viscosity ate safer to use on foHage than those of high viscosity. For dormant sprays on deciduous trees, oils with viscosities between 100 and 200 Saybolt universal seconds (SUs) at 37.8°C are considered satisfactory. A lower range is often used in colder and a higher range in warmer areas. 

Fiber Analysis. Paper may be composed of one or several types of fibers, eg, animal, vegetable, mineral, and synthetic (see Eibers). Paper is generally composed of woody vegetable fibers obtained from coniferous (softwood) and deciduous (hardwood) trees. QuaUtative and quantitative methods have been developed to determine the fibrous constituents in a sheet of paper (see TAPPI T401). However, the proliferation in the number and types of pulping processes used have made the analysis of paper a much more complex problem. Comprehensive reviews of the methods are given in References 20 and 23. 

Carbon. Most of the Earth s supply of carbon is stored in carbonate rocks in the Hthosphere. Normally the circulation rate for Hthospheric carbon is slow compared with that of carbon between the atmosphere and biosphere. The carbon cycle has received much attention in recent years as a result of research into the possible relation between increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration, most of which is produced by combustion of fossil fuel, and the "greenhouse effect," or global warming. Extensive research has been done on the rate at which carbon dioxide might be converted to cellulose and other photosyntheticaHy produced organic compounds by various forms of natural and cultivated plants. Estimates also have been made of the rate at which carbon dioxide is released to soil under optimum conditions by various kinds of plant cover, such as temperature-zone deciduous forests, cultivated farm crops, prairie grassland, and desert vegetation. 

In hardwoods, morphological structural elements in longitudinal series comprise the segmented structure termed vessel . Vessels, which are exposed in transverse section, constitute about 10-46% of the stem volume in deciduous hardwoods and are cells of relatively large diameters (50-300 p.m). Vessels have in short the appearance of open vertical tubes within the wood structure because their end walls have partially dissolved. By comparison, the hardwood vessel diameter can be as much a 10 times the diameter of a softwood fiber. 

Abfallerzeugnis, n. waste product. Abf everWertung,/. utilization of waste. Abfall-fett, n. waste fat or grease, -gummi, n. waste rubber, scrap rubber, -gut, n. waste material (to be treated for recovery), -hefe, /. waste yeast, -holz, n. waste wood, abfallig, a. falling off, sloping, etc. (see abfallen) deciduous adverse. 

Laub-holz, n. leaved trees, deciduous trees wood of deciduoiis trees, hardwood, -holz-kohle, /. hardwood charcoal, -holzzellstofff m. Paper) hardwood cellulose or pulp, laubverlierend, laubwechselnd, a. deciduous. Lauch, m. leek. 

Sommer, m. summer, -benzin, n. summer gaso-hne or petrol, -flecken, m. freckle, -ge-treide, n. summer cereals, sommergriln, a. deciduous. 

Timber is derived from a great number of botanical species, and has a wide range of properties. Variability also occurs within a single species and in order to achieve acceptable levels of uniformity, selection by grading is necessary. The timber trade differentiates between softwoods and hardwoods, and the latter are again separated into temperate and tropical types. Hardwoods are derived from broad-leaved and mainly deciduous trees, which are anatomically more complex and differ in chemical composition... 

Several studies, based on models, examined the effects of land-use change on the global carbon cycle and conclude that there is a net release of carbon due to land clearing. However, the results and conclusions of these studies are based on assumed sizes of vegetation carbon pools which are inputs to the models. For example, Melillo et al. 24) concluded that boreal and temperate deciduous forests of the northern hemisphere are net sources of atmospheric carbon. Their analysis used values for carbon density derived by Whittaker and Likens 19) from work by Rodin and Bazilevich (27). Rodin and Bazilevich extrapolated results of small, unrelated studies in Europe and the USSR to estimate total biomass of Eurasian boreal and temperate deciduous forests. Their estimates have since been extrapolated to forests worldwide and are used often today. 

Temperate Deciduous Forest Global Average Primary 174 89... 

Much of the surface soil erosion and hence nutrient loss occurs when deforestation and biomass burning removes and/or consumes the organic materials that protect the soil surface. Significant losses may occur by dry ravel or overland water erosion associated with precipitation events. Under a shifting cultivation system in a tropical deciduous forest ecosystem in Mexico, Maass et al. 61) reported first year losses of N, P, K, and Ca were 187, 27, 31, and 378 kg ha" respectively. In contrast, losses in adjacent undisturbed forests were less than 0.1 kg ha for all nutrients except Ca (losses were 0.1-0.5 kg ha for Ca). 

Alfisols Bt horizon with moderate base saturation Temperate deciduous forests... 

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