Criminalistics

Pattern recognition has been successfully applied early in the fields of criminalistics (Duewer and Kowalski [1975] Saxberg et al. [1978]), archaeology (Danzer et al. [1984, 1987]) as well as characterization of food (Forina and Armanino [1982] Borszeki et al. [1986a]), and wine (Borszeki et al. [1986b]). 

Criminalistics and trace evidence are both terms that apply to all types of physical material that may be circumstantial evidence in the trial of a case. Most often experts who are identified as criminalists, microanalysts, or trace evidence examiners analyze a variety of types of trace evidence. They carry out three types of identification. First is to determine the nature of small items of trace evidence. After this forensic experts compare the trace evidence with known materials for the purpose of determining the origin of the evidence. The third type of criminahstics investigations is performed in order to identify an individual to whom the trace belongs. For this purpose population studies using statistics (especially the probabilistic approach of Bayesian theory) and chemometrics methods are utilized. 

Depending on the toxicological or criminalistic problems to be solved and/or the availability of the sample, different matrices must be analyzed by using GC-MS or LC-MS techniques. 

A broad spectrum of nonbiological materials is submitted for toxicological and criminalistic analysis. These include, in particular ... 

Figure 16.2. Schematic presentation of procedure for identification of chemical compounds and other traces for forensic toxicology or criminalistic purposes [4],...

G. Skopp, Ion mobility spectrometry for the detection of drugs in cases of forensic and criminalistic relevance, Int. J. Ion Mobility Spectrom., 2 (1999) 22-34. 

De Forest, Peter R., R.E. Gaensslen, and Henry C. Lee. Forensic Science An Introduction to Criminalistics. New York McGraw-Hill, 1983. 

Saferstein, Richard. Criminalistics An Introduction to Forensic Science, 8th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ Pearson Education, Inc., 2004. 

Forensic Chemistry (Chemical Criminalistics). This branch of science relates to the application of chemical knowledge and techniques to die study of physical evidence connected with crime. Investigation of firearms, ammunition and expls is one of the duties of a forensic chemist Refs i) A. Lucas, "Forensic Chemistry and Scientific Criminal Investigation 1, Longmans, Green, London (1935), Chap 7, Explosives Chap 11, Fireworks 2) H. 

Petraco, N. Color Atlas and Manual of Microscopy for Criminalists, Chemists and Conservators, CRC Press Boca Raton, FL, 2004. 

P. J. Cashman and J. I. Thornton, High speed liquid adsorption chromatography in criminalistics. II. The separation of heroin, 06-monoacetylmorphine and morphine, J. Forens. Sci. Soc., 12 417(1972). 

Having briefly touched upon some historical facets of forensic science, I think it is clear that the first necessary ingredient of our educational program is one which will make students aware of the past. Undergraduate and graduate criminalistics programs have mushroomed from four in the 1940 s to several dozen at the present time. As I understand the philosophy... 

What seems to have been perpetuated is an "on-the-job" training sequence where unqualified police service personnel receive their training and advancement from equally unqualified peers. As noted by Dr. Paul Kirk "Too many forensic scientists are being trained in a crime laboratory by instructors with a nonscientific background...criminalistics is not yet mature enough to have emerged from the apprenticeship system" (4). 

There are few successful forensic science/criminalistics educational programs at colleges and universities in the United States. 

Given the breadth of forensic science and the varying demands on the criminalistics laboratory, it is not surprising that there is a wide variation in the quality and capability of different laboratories. Limited analyses may be possible at the local level, whereas at regional (e.g., county, state) and federal laboratories sophisticated analytical capabilities may exist. 

Research must be an important component of the university graduate program in forensic science. While such efforts will typically be of longer range significance than found in studies conducted in on-going criminalistics laboratories, it is necessary that the needs of forensic science be always kept in mind. This can only be accomplished by close communication between personnel in the Institute and the forensic science community. 

Universitv of California (Berkeley) M. Crim. D. Crim. Criminology and Criminalistics... 

Measures of performance. In the fall of 1973, three crime laboratories (Contra Costa County, California Dade County, Florida and Columbus, Ohio) were selected as representative sites for the development of measures of performance and effectiveness. The Planning Research Corporation, with Mr. Lowell W. Bradford as Project Director, was awarded the task of developing a conceptual criminalistics laboratory model and methods for measuring the performance of such laboratories. Teams of researchers each spent two months collecting data on the operations of the three previously mentioned laboratories. Data were gathered on the forms of physical evidence submitted and the types of crimes from which the evidence had been recovered. Evidence and cases were traced through the laboratories as examinations were performed and results were formulated. 

The performance measures report is to be published in the near future and will be disseminated to all criminalistics laboratories. The report, although an initial inquiry into a very complex problem, is a major contribution to the literature and should be carefully examined and critiqued by all crime laboratory professionals. Hopefully, it will serve as the basis for future research and refinement of performance models and measures. 

Measures of effectiveness. Concurrent with the research to develop measures of performance, the Calspan Corporation has been developing techniques for measuring the effectiveness or impact of crime laboratories on the criminal justice system. Prior to this study the various uses of criminalistics in criminal justice operations have not been evaluated quantitatively and on a crime-specific basis. Even though crime laboratories have expanded and increased in number in recent years, there is little information which shows that the quality and scope of laboratory output is satisfying the practical needs and expectations of investigators, attorneys and the courts. 

The Calspan study, which is scheduled for completion in October, will thoroughly describe the role of criminalistics operations in criminal justice systems. Methods for measuring the effectiveness of criminalistics operations are being developed and validated. A series of recommendations will be drafted based upon data collection and observation in the three locations. These suggestions should serve to improve the utilization of criminalistics not only in the study sites, but in all forensic laboratories throughout the country. 

Blood and bloodstain analysis. The Aerospace Corporation has completed a survey and technical assessment of the state-of-the-art of forensic serological practices in the United States. Problems have been defined which currently limit the utilization of blood characterization techniques, and approaches have been identified which have the potential of solving these problems. This assessment was accomplished primarily through contacts with criminalistics laboratories, blood banks, industrial organizations which manufacture instrumentation and reagents for blood identification, and through an extensive search of the literature. 

Criminalists play an extremely important role in this bloodstain research program. The needs of the user community of criminalists are well-represented by individuals acting either as consultants to the contractors or as advisors to the Institute. As new prototype equipment and methods of analysis are developed, crime laboratories will be invited to participate in their field testing and evaluation. 

As this research progresses, the findings will be disseminated to the criminalistics community. 

A tentative data base has been established based upon surveys and interviews with criminalists, educators, scientists and manufacturers. Existing forensic material collections and data files have been located and evaluated. New proposed forensic material collection specifications have been developed including recommendations relating to size, scope and costs of development. The report, although not yet published,... 

Computerized Information System. The Project SEARCH Criminalistics Laboratory Information System (CLIS) Committee is another LEAA funded project. Approximately fifteen criminalists are serving on the CLIS Committee which is conducting a requirements analysis for a nationwide computerized crime laboratory information system. With the assistance of a technical subcontractor, PRC Public Management Services, Inc., the committee has determined the "user needs" for such a data system, a conceptual design of a computer system to meet these requirements, and an assessment of different organizational and equipment alternatives for the system. The most recent task reports and implementation plan have been completed and submitted to the advisory committee for final review. Copies of the final reports should be ready for dissemination in the very near future. 

While the National Institute always has attempted to he responsive to the practical needs of the professional community in the research it funds, criminalists have had a much stronger voice in the definition of priority areas and the actual selection of projects in FY 197 than at any previous time. It is anticipated that this input will continue in the future with criminalists playing important roles in the design of new projects and the monitorship and evaluation of programs already funded. 

At the February meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences in Dallas, Texas, the Criminalistics Section supported a resolution that the Forensic Sciences Foundation develop a concept paper for a national system of crime laboratory proficiency testing This, subsequently, resulted in a grant award to the Foundation for an eighteen-month study which will test the feasibility of regular proficiency testing in the nation s forensic laboratories. 

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