Crime laboratories

Most of the forensic science or crime laboratories located in North America are associated with law enforcement agencies, medical examiner—coroner departments, or prosecutors offices. There are a large number of independent consultants, also. Laboratories exist at the municipal, county, state, and federal levels of government. There are approximately 300 government-operated forensic science laboratories in the United States. 

The large numbers of dmg trafficking arrests made by poHce agencies and the resulting high volume of cases submitted to most crime laboratories... 

Lasers (qv) and other high intensity or alternative light sources are usefiil in crime laboratories to visualize latent fingerprints, seminal fluid stains, obhterated writings, and erasures, and to aid in specialized photographic work. Infrared and ultraviolet light sources are also used to view items of evidence. 

Fluorescence Microscope. A useful light microscope utilizes UV light to induce fluorescence in microscopic samples (40). Because fluorescence is often the result of trace components in a given sample rather than intrinsic fluorescence of the principal component, it is useful in the crime laboratory for the comparison of particles and fibers from suspect and crime scene. Particles of the same substance from different sources almost certainly show a different group of trace elements. It is also very useful in biology where fluorescent compounds can be absorbed on (and therefore locate and identify) components of a tissue section. 

Perhaps the most common and well-publicized use of DNA fingerprinting is that carried out by crime laboratories to link suspects to biological evidence— blood, hair follicles, skin, or semen—found at a crime scene. Thousands of court cases have now been decided based on DNA evidence. 

BJ Culliford. The Examination and Typing of Bloodstains in the Crime Laboratory. Washington, DC US Govt Printing Office, 1971. 

Forensic toxicologists are generally employed by federal, state, and local government crime laboratories, which may be affiliated with the medical examiner s office from which they receive fluids and tissues for analysis. They often work on criminal cases and usually testify for the office of the district attorney, the prosecutor. Forensic toxicologists may also be involved in drug testing in... 

The bulk of the scientific testing in crime laboratories involves Ihe analysis and characterization of either synthetic or biochemical organic substances or both. Additionally there are a number of evidence categories classified as inorganic. 

It is therefore important to note some pertinent facts related to the assignment of police personnel to scientific units of the semi-military police agencies in this country. A ques-tionaire to which 100 police units responded revealed that "Of the total number of 459 civilian personnel employed in crime laboratories, almost all possess Bachelor of Science or equivalent degrees. Of the 623 full-time police personnel, only a fraction hold Bachelor of Science degrees. The areas of document examination, firearms comparison. have the lowest number of degree holders." (2). 

The survey also revealed that "An examination of the educational backgrounds of personnel in many crime laboratories indicates a need for considerable upgrading. The number of experts qualified by on-the-job training is excessive.," (2). 

What seems to have been perpetuated is an "on-the-job" training sequence where unqualified police service personnel receive their training and advancement from equally unqualified peers. As noted by Dr. Paul Kirk "Too many forensic scientists are being trained in a crime laboratory by instructors with a nonscientific background...criminalistics is not yet mature enough to have emerged from the apprenticeship system" (4). 

Joseph, A., "A Survey of Crime Laboratories", 1967 funded by LEAA Grant 013. 

While science writers today extoll the virtues of computer controlled laboratory instrumentation, knowledgeable lab dentists recognize the extent to which automated equipment can "free" the scientist from his laboratory investigations. A similar appraisal occurred in the crime laboratory. Crime laboratory directors soon recognized that no amount of modern equipment could reduce the ever-growing case load if there were not enough laboratory scientists to use the equipment. Adequately prepared laboratory scientists were needed to use the equipment to produce results which could be interpreted in a meaningful manner relative to the cases at hand. In other words, we have not as yet found the way to get the "computer" to testify under oath on the stand ... 

The forensic science profession is not entirely without fault Perhaps, due to the state of flux in which the profession finds itself, forensic scientists have not been sufficiently articulate about the personnel needs of the profession. Just what the forensic scientist does within the confines of the CRIME LABORATORY walls has long been a well guarded mystery or at least it seems... 

A two-quarter internship in a recognized crime laboratory is required of each student. The typical student will begin the internship in the summer following the junior year. 

In the M. S. program we have tried to achieve a balance between the theoretical and practical aspects of forensic chemistry. Fundamental principles are presented in the first quarter, and the emphasis is then gradually shifted to the more operational aspects of the profession, leading ultimately to the in-service training period. Some flexibility is built into the program through the electives and by the type of position taken in the crime laboratory during the three-month work period. 

Measures of performance. In the fall of 1973, three crime laboratories (Contra Costa County, California Dade County, Florida and Columbus, Ohio) were selected as representative sites for the development of measures of performance and effectiveness. The Planning Research Corporation, with Mr. Lowell W. Bradford as Project Director, was awarded the task of developing a conceptual criminalistics laboratory model and methods for measuring the performance of such laboratories. Teams of researchers each spent two months collecting data on the operations of the three previously mentioned laboratories. Data were gathered on the forms of physical evidence submitted and the types of crimes from which the evidence had been recovered. Evidence and cases were traced through the laboratories as examinations were performed and results were formulated. 

The project involved the development and application of techniques for determining the requirements of crime laboratories in terms of personnel, facilities, equipment and procedures. A state-of-the-art conceptual model was designed to be flexible enough for adaption to Jurisdictions with dissimilar populations... 

The performance measures report is to be published in the near future and will be disseminated to all criminalistics laboratories. The report, although an initial inquiry into a very complex problem, is a major contribution to the literature and should be carefully examined and critiqued by all crime laboratory professionals. Hopefully, it will serve as the basis for future research and refinement of performance models and measures. 

Measures of effectiveness. Concurrent with the research to develop measures of performance, the Calspan Corporation has been developing techniques for measuring the effectiveness or impact of crime laboratories on the criminal justice system. Prior to this study the various uses of criminalistics in criminal justice operations have not been evaluated quantitatively and on a crime-specific basis. Even though crime laboratories have expanded and increased in number in recent years, there is little information which shows that the quality and scope of laboratory output is satisfying the practical needs and expectations of investigators, attorneys and the courts. 

Criminalists play an extremely important role in this bloodstain research program. The needs of the user community of criminalists are well-represented by individuals acting either as consultants to the contractors or as advisors to the Institute. As new prototype equipment and methods of analysis are developed, crime laboratories will be invited to participate in their field testing and evaluation. 

It should be noted that a comparable survey and assessment task in the gunshot residue detection area recently has been completed by Aerospace. The long-range objectives of this research program are to develop rapid, reliable and inexpensive techniques and equipment for use by crime laboratories in the detection of gunshot residues on the hands of suspects. 

Two standard reference collections have been constructed and are in the process of being distributed to crime laboratories in the United States. The first is a set of auto paint color chips for 197 domestic vehicles. Each set contains samples of approximately lltO colors plus information concerning the makes and models of automobiles on which each color was used. 

Computerized Information System. The Project SEARCH Criminalistics Laboratory Information System (CLIS) Committee is another LEAA funded project. Approximately fifteen criminalists are serving on the CLIS Committee which is conducting a requirements analysis for a nationwide computerized crime laboratory information system. With the assistance of a technical subcontractor, PRC Public Management Services, Inc., the committee has determined the "user needs" for such a data system, a conceptual design of a computer system to meet these requirements, and an assessment of different organizational and equipment alternatives for the system. The most recent task reports and implementation plan have been completed and submitted to the advisory committee for final review. Copies of the final reports should be ready for dissemination in the very near future. 

At the LEAA-sponsored FBI National Symposium on Crime Laboratory Development held in December, 1973, crime laboratory directors from around the country selected several priority research areas. The Institute has been able to respond to most of the high priority areas in the form of new grants addressing blood, semen and hair characterization. 

At the February meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences in Dallas, Texas, the Criminalistics Section supported a resolution that the Forensic Sciences Foundation develop a concept paper for a national system of crime laboratory proficiency testing This, subsequently, resulted in a grant award to the Foundation for an eighteen-month study which will test the feasibility of regular proficiency testing in the nation s forensic laboratories. 

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