Cost-effective mass production

Activation of the surface by fluorination for adhesion with the reinforcement resin27 This is a cost-effective mass production technology, which does not interfere with the overwrapping production processes, e.g., filament winding (see Figure 16.5). 

The discs or wafers are contacted by a silver paste on two opposite surfaces and are fitted with leads. While discs are produced to the final size, wafers are cut to a final chip size depending on the resistance of the wafer. Usually a coating and special aging process follows to ensure long-term stability. The innovative waver technology was the breakthrough to cost-effective mass production of accurate NTCs with defined properties. 

In spite of these limitations and problems, investment trends in sensors appear to have stabilized in the mid-1990s, and should increase steadily into the next century. The reason for this investment turnaround appears to be the maturing of chemical and biosensor companies and development efforts. Lead investigators in these efforts are more aware of the needs to develop sensors which are easily scaled up and mass produced. In addition, improved methods for the immobilization and stabilization of sensor active surfaces are being developed which promise both increased sensitivity/specificity for the sensors and simple and cost-effective mass production of highly stable sensors. 

Thermosets consist of densely crossUnked polymers, that can also be processed by injection molding. Thus produced articles are used in boats, in the automotive field and in the electrical industry (insulation). Thermoset moldings find particular apphcation, where their non-conductive properties and heat-resistance are essential. Injection molding provides a cost-effective mass-production process of articles for the electrical industry. 

Besides such basic aspects concerning the shape of and materials for microreaction devices, costs play a major role in the selection of a microfabrication process. In this respect, the number of pieces and the precision that is really required, as well as aspects like availability and manufacturing experience, must be taken into account. In contrast to the situation some years ago, the prerequisites for cost-effective mass fabrication as well as small-scale production or rapid prototyping have essentially changed. Modem commercial equipment for the production of microdevices is available that allows unreliable and uneconomic laboratory-scale manufacturing devices to be replaced. 

Since these devices are made from two components produced by means of well-established mass production technologies (thin film and printed circuit board technology) and assembling of the parts is compatible to IC packaging techniques, cost effective mass fabrication of this device seems realistic. 

We just cannot expect situations like golf clubs and tennis rackets for all consumer products because all products do not have those same built-in characteristics of the competitive edge. When we consider a car, we must be realistic and acknowledge that the car must have a price low enough for people to afford. Think back to the days of Henry Ford he made a car that could be sold for about 250, so that everyone could afford to have one. This affordability was the real beauty of his mass-production techniques. Everyone could afford to have a car, and then almost everyone did have one. In contrast, before Henry Ford, only the rich could afford an automobile. As soon as we get to the trade-off where composite materials will effectively compete in the automotive market place, we will see tremendously broader applications, but there are problems along the way. The manufacturing cost must be improved in order for those applications to ever come about. 

Although polyester is always brightened with disperse-type products, the methods of application vary. FBAs are marketed for incorporation in the polymer mass, for exhaust application with or without carrier and for use in the pad-thermosol process at a temperature within the range 160-220 °C. Most products are applicable by more than one method, although none can he applied satisfactorily by all methods and cost-effective products introduced in the 1950s still remain important today. 

Although considerable research has been conducted with Pd-alloy foils, tubes, and thinner composite membranes, long-term durability and stability need to be further demonstrated, especially in the fuel reforming or WGS operating conditions, for acceptance of this technology in a commercial sector. Furthermore, mass-scale and cost-effective production of industrial-scale Pd-alloy thin-film composite membranes need to be demonstrated to be competitive in the hydrogen production and purification market. 

Without appropriate cleanup measures, BTEX often persist in subsurface environments, endangering groundwater resources and public health. Bioremediation, in conjunction with free product recovery, is one of the most cost-effective approaches to clean up BTEX-contaminated sites [326]. However, while all BTEX compounds are biodegradable, there are several factors that can limit the success of BTEX bioremediation, such as pollutant concentration, active biomass concentration, temperature, pH, presence of other substrates or toxicants, availability of nutrients and electron acceptors, mass transfer limitations, and microbial adaptation. These factors have been recognized in various attempts to optimize clean-up operations. Yet, limited attention has been given to the exploitation of favorable substrate interactions to enhance in situ BTEX biodegradation. 

The suitability of a cycle for hydrogen production depends upon the overall thermal efficiency and operational feasibility. A highly endothermic reaction step is required in a cycle to achieve effective heat-to-chemical energy conversion. For efficient mass and momentum transfer a fluid based system is preferred [96] and, ultimately, for large-scale hydrogen production other factors such as environmental effects and cost effectiveness must also be considered. 

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