Cortical and subcortical

Major efferent projections of the hypothalamic orexin system comprise descending and ascending, dorsal and ventral pathways that terminate preferentially in aminergic, endocrine, and autonomic control centers in the hypothalamus, midbrain, brainstem, and spinal cord, as well as in limbic cortical and subcortical structures, including sqDtum, amygdala, thalamus,... 

Moore DJ, Masliah E, Rippeth JD, Gonzalez R, Carey CL, Cherner M, Ellis RJ, Achim CL, Marcotte TD, Heaton RK, Grant I (2006) Cortical and subcortical neurodegeneration is associated with HIV neurocognitive impairment. Aids 20(6) 879-887 Nath A (2002) Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) proteins in neuropathogenesis of HIV dementia. J Infect Dis 186(Suppl 2) S193-S198... 

Neuronal programming of movements according to cortical and subcortical input... 

The 5-HT3 receptor is not coupled to G proteins. It directly activates a 5-HT-gated cation channel, which leads to depolarization of a variety of cells. As a result, there is an increase in the release of DA, NA, GABA, ACh, and 5-HT at central sites (Stanford, 2001). The 5-HT3 receptor is present in cortical and subcortical structures (Table 9.7). 

Acetylcholine All four alkaloids derived from areca (arecoline, arecaidine, guvacoline, and guvacine) act as full agonists at muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (Wolf-Pflugmann et al. 1989). Peripherally administered arecoline (10 mg/kg) subtly reduces cortical and subcortical acetylcholine levels (Molinengo et al. 1986). 

Monoamine Arecoline has indirect effects on catecholamine levels (Molinengo et al. 1986). Significant reductions occur in norepinephrine levels, but increases occur in dopamine levels in both cortical and subcortical areas. 

The state of conscious awareness, with orientation of self in time and space, depends on hnely tuned and accurately co-ordinated activity in multiple neuronal networks in the brain (Park Young, 1994). Such activity involves parallel processing in many cortical and subcortical pathways including arousal and memory systems (Chapters 3 and 4) and systems involved in mood (Chapters 5 and 18) and utilises an orchestra of many neurotransmitters. The whole ensemble appears to be synchronised by high frequency (40+ Hz) oscillatory electrical activity which binds the component parts together (Llinas et ah, 1998 Tallon-Baudry Bertrand, 1999). 

L., Paskevitch, P.A., and Domesick, V.B. (1983) Changes in cortical and subcortical levels of monoamines and their metabolites following unilateral ventrolateral cortical lesions in the rat. Brain Res, 271 279-288. 

M. S. Keshavan, O. G. Bukstein and J. W. Pettegrew, Evidence of developmental alterations in cortical and subcortical regions of children with attention-deficit/hyper-activity disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 2008, 65,1419-1428. 

Opioid receptors. Direct binding of highly radioactive opiates has permitted localization of specific opiate receptors of several types.863-866 The three major types (p, 8, k) are all 7-helix receptors coupled to adenylate cyclase, K+ and Ca2+ channels, and the MAP kinase cascade.866 The p receptors bind morphine most tightly.867 8673 These receptors are found in various cortical and subcortical regions of the brain. Most narcotics are polycyclic in nature and share the grouping indicated in Fig. 30-30. However, the flexible molecule methadone binds to the same receptors.868 Among antagonists that block the euphoric effects of opiates the most effective is naloxone (Fig. 30-30). 

Recently, attempts have been made to reconcile the deficiencies in the dopamine hypothesis by focusing on other neurotransmitters that may interact with dopamine in discrete cortical and subcortical neural circuits. In particular, the involvement of the glutamatergic system has received considerable attention. This possibility has arisen from the finding that dissociation anaesthetics such as ketamine and phencyclidine (PCP) can cause a schizophreniform psychosis in normal individuals. Such effects bear a much closer resemblance to the positive and negative symptoms of... 

The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is the anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain. It lies in front of the motor and premotor areas. The PFC is divided into the lateral, orbitofrontal, and medial prefrontal areas (Barbas and Pandya, 1987, 1989). Comprehensive reviews of this structure and functions of the PFC have been published in various forms (Fuster, 1997 Goldman-Rakic, 1987 Miller and Cohen, 2001 Passingham, 1993 Tanji and Hoshi, 2008). The PFC possesses a wealth of anatomical connectivity with multiple cortical and subcortical areas, and is involved in broad aspects of behavioral control. The PFC has been implicated in complex cognitive behaviors, social behaviors, and personality expression. Recent studies of this area have revealed its role in the control of a much broader spectrum of functions, such as cross-modal and cross-temporal association of information, in the executive control of behavior, and in the top-down control of neural networks involving the cortical and subcortical areas. Among them, the executive control of action was a term coined to capture various aspects of PFC function. 

Cortical and Subcortical Generators of Normal and Abnormal Rhythmicity David A. McCormick... 

Min WK, Park KK, Kim YS et al (2000) Atherothrombotic middle cerebral artery territory infarction. Topographic diversity with common occurrence of concomitant small cortical and subcortical infarcts. Stroke 31 2055-2061 Minematsu K, Yamaguchi T, Omae T (1992) Spectacular shrinking deficit rapid recovery from a major hemispheric syndrome by migration of an embolus. Neurology 42 157-162... 

Christophe C, Clercx A, Blum D, Hasaerts D, Segebarth C, Perlmutter N (1994) Early MR detection of cortical and subcortical hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy in full-term-infants. Pediatr Radiol 24 581-584... 

The reason for this is twofold first the input-output gates are closed by active inhibition second, the central representations of sensation and movement in the cortical and subcortical brain are self-activated. 

In an attempt to shed light on the mechanism by which neuroleptics induce extrapyramidal reactions, Bishnoi et al. (2007) chronically administered haloperidol (1 mg/kg) and chlorpromazine (5 mg/kg) to rats, resulting in a time-dependent increase in orofacial hyperkinetic movements. They found a corresponding time-dependent decrease in extracellular levels of norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin in various cortical and subcortical regions of the brain. 

Neuropsychological testing in a 51-year-old woman with a serum lithium concentration of 2.4 mmol/1 showed striking cortical and subcortical deficits, which had only partially resolved when she was retested 4 and 14 weeks later (157). 

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