Chronology of the development

The chronology of the development of nuclear reactors can be divided into several principal periods pre-1939, before fission was discovered (12) 1939—1945, the time of World War II (13—15) 1945—1963, the era of research, development, and demonstration (16—18) 1963—mid-1990s, during which reactors have been deployed in large numbers throughout the world (10,18) and extending into the twenty-first century, a time when advanced power reactors are expected to be built (19—23). Design of nuclear reactors has been based on a combination of theory, measurement of basic and derived parameters, and experiments with complete systems (24—27). 

The effects of a chemical in a tissue frequently depend on the chemical s interaction with cell surface or cytoplasmic receptors. In some cases, a chemical interacts directly with the cell membrane and alters its permeability. The pharmacodynamic actions of drugs are usually mediated by interactions with a receptor, and a drug often competes with endogenous ligands of a receptor. The toxicity of environmental chemicals can also depend on and be mediated by interactions with receptors. In some cases, the responses are different for chemical exposures at different fetal stages of development, and it is possible to explain the different responses by the chronology of the development of fetal receptor systems. The fetus may develop receptor systems for a compound before it develops the ability to metabolize that compound thus, a low level of an active chemical can have greater and more persistent effects in the fetus than in the mother, whose metabolism limits the duration and extent of the effect. This is one mechanism for selective developmental toxicity of chemicals. 

The chronology of the development of the different separation techniques employed for carbohydrate analysis in foodstuffs may be summarized as follows ... 

In the following sections, a brief chronology of the development of this process is presented the materials, equipment, and basic operations relating to the resin-bead loading and calcination method of producing sized curium-americium oxide microspheres at TRU are described and typical production data are presented. 

An abbreviated chronology of the development of RK methods is a useful way to begin this discussion. Although Wilson (1) first proposed the introduction of a temperature-dependent parameter to replace one of two constants in 1964, much of the popularity of the RK method stems from the extremely simple temperature dependence introduced by Soave (2) in 1972. In the intervening period, Joffe and Zudkevitch (3,4,5) in 1969 and 1970 and Chang and Lu (6) in 1970 had proposed making both constants temperature dependent, inspired in part by a series of papers by Chueh and Prausnitz (7,8) which demonstrated that the RK equation can be adapted to predict both vapor and liquid properties. The more complex Joffe-Zudkevitch (JZ) method was not as widely adopted as the Soave procedure. 

The chronology of the development of the injection molding process was discussed in Chapter 1, Introduction to Polymer Blends. Injection molding of polymers began in the 1870 s. It was adapted from the die casting process to form diverse articles from nitrocellulose, NC. The... 

TTie chronology of the development of these studies can be found in [8]. 

Helium-3 [14762-55-1], He, has been known as a stable isotope since the middle 1930s and it was suspected that its properties were markedly different from the common isotope, helium-4. The development of nuclear fusion devices in the 1950s yielded workable quantities of pure helium-3 as a decay product from the large tritium inventory implicit in maintaining an arsenal of fusion weapons (see Deuterium AND TRITIUM) Helium-3 is one of the very few stable materials where the only practical source is nuclear transmutation. The chronology of the isolation of the other stable isotopes of the hehum-group gases has been summarized (4). 

A chronological examination of the steroid literature regarding the conversion of pregnanes to androstanes, androstanes to pregnanes, and the side-chain polyoxygenation of pregnanes reveals, in microcosm, the history of the development of steroid chemistry over the past three decades. 

The chronology of the most remarkable contributions to combustion in the early stages of its development is as follows. In 1815, Sir Humphry Davy developed the miner s safety lamp. In 1826, Michael Faraday gave a series of lectures and wrote The Chemical History of Candle. In 1855, Robert Bunsen developed his premixed gas burner and measured flame temperatures and flame speed. Francois-Ernest Mallard and Emile Le Chatelier studied flame propagation and proposed the first flame structure theory in 1883. At the same time, the first evidence of detonation was discovered in 1879-1881 by Marcellin Berthelot and Paul Vieille this was immediately confirmed in 1881 by Mallard and Le Chatelier. In 1899-1905, David Chapman and Emile Jouguet developed the theory of deflagration and detonation and calculated the speed of detonation. In 1900, Paul Vieille provided the physical explanation of detonation... 

The chronology of the discovery of the elements is a textbook example of scientific development Three phenomena are particularly clear. 

An expanded version of this work was later published in the Memoirs of the Paris Academy for the year 1774, which however appeared only in 1778. This delay in the publication of the Academy s Memoirs was typical at that time, and generates frequent problems in establishing the true chronology in the development of Lavoisier s chemistry. 

In this section, we review in chronological order the development of the polymeric composite, fully functionalized polymeric, and the glassy molecular PR materials, respectively. For the latter two categories, we mainly focus on the progress made in our laboratory. More detailed accounts of the materials developed in other groups can be found in the references [9,10,37]. Another promising class of PR materials is PR liquid crystals, which have been reviewed by G. Wiederrecht, in Chapter 7. 

The history of the development report should be written on an ongoing basis, concurrent with actual development activities in a chronological manner while everything is fresh in the minds of the scientists. 

Ever since they were first reported, organometallic compounds have been known to have biological effects. The experiences of Frankland and Bunsen have already been mentioned. Two workers were poisoned, both fatally, by dimethylmercury in 1866 (H5). Industrial development of metal carbonyls and tetraethyllead caused a number of deaths 188, 265). In general, organoarsenic compounds have been most investigated for their toxic effects, with organomercury compounds a close second. Table V outlines the chronology of these developments, and Fig. 2 shows some representative compounds studied. 

In this chapter we provide a historical perspective of the development of the field of computational toxicology. Beginning from the similarity-based grouping of elements into the periodic table, the chapter presents a chronology of developments from the simple observations of qualitative relations between structure and toxicity through LFER (linear free energy related) and QSAR (quantitative structure activity relationship) models, to the current... 

No effort will be made to provide a chronological history of the development of potentiometric titration equipment, and only representative highlights will be given. Not long after the appearance of pH/potentiometric equipment in the period around 1910, the use of the instrument as a means of carrying out potentiometric titrations was reahsed. 

The chronology of instrumental developments in this area of chemical crystallography has reflected directly the relative levels of these challenges, the structure of metastable photo-induced states being first realised in 1991 [22], whereas the first report of a temporally resolved experiment with X-ray crystallography of a small... 

Fig. 1. Chronology of magnet development since 1900 Best reported laboratory values for the static energy product and intrinsic coercive force. (After Strnat 1986.)...

In this chapter we shall follow the development of probability and statistics more or less chronologically from the 17th century as it appears in a study of the mathematicians who contributed to these developments. When coming to medical statistics, we shall then return in time to pick up some of the developments made by biologists and physicians. 

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