Cause-effect relation

Pretreatment with monoclonal anti-TNF antibodies prevents mortality (B23, M32) and organ damage (M16) in experimental sepsis. In clinical studies using anti-TNF antibodies, however, the overall benefit of this treatment showed encouraging but no evident results (L22). Recently, the INTERSEPT study suggests a possible role for anti-TNF antibody as an adjunctive therapy, but with no reduction of mortality (C21). There is no plain cause-effect relation between TNF re-... 

Cause-effect-relations of these dynamics in the value chain may still be obvious, when operating a simple value chain comprising few products, locations and production steps. Considering the global multi-stage, multilocation value chain network, price changes in raw materials cannot directly be related to intermediate or even sales products and their prices. This problem requires specific planning models and methods. 

We do not imply here that scientists know all cause-effect relations for human biomonitoring in fact, the mental-model technique probably becomes more useful as it makes expert uncertainties and disagreements more explicit. However, experts mental models of the causal links are likely to be more comprehensive than those of nonscientists and thus provide a useful guide for topics on which to probe lay mental models about biomonitoring and biomarkers. 

It is difficult to establish clearly the incidence and cause-effect relations of many reactions and hence to identify patients at risk. The following factors are important ... 

Abnormal liver function tests (SED-9, 152) (17) and hepatic injury have been associated with naproxen (18), but no definite cause-effect relation has been established. 

Pott s observations can be said to be the first to establish reliably a cause-effect relation between an environmental agent and cancer, and also to recognize the importance of good industrial hygiene measures to protect workers from hazardous agents. 

However, one cannot say that the nucleophilic properties, in a philosophical sense, are explained by, for instance, the refractive index. There is not a cause-effect relation between these properties. The measured properties are related to nucleophilicity because they depend on the same intrinsic molecular property, viz. the polarizability of electrons. 

It is less drastic to assume that there are relations between the properties of the reaction system and the observed repsonse(s), but that these relations are not necessarily cause-effect relations. The properties of reaction space and the responses are related because they depend on the same intrinsic properties. 

In the general case, the PLS method is the preferred choice. It can be used to link the variations in the experimental space, the reaction space, and the response space. As the PLS method does not involve any assumptions as to cause-effect relations, it is in that respect a method for unprejudiced analysis. 

The variables in the experimental space are continuous. The relations between the settings of the experimental variables and the observed response can reasonably be assumed to be cause-effect relations. The appropriate method for establishing quantitative relation is to use multiple linear regression for fitting response surface models to observed data. For this purpose, an experimental design with good statistical properties is essential. 

The variations in the reaction space are discrete and comprise all possible combinations of substrates, reagents, and solvents which can be used for a given reaction. Interactions between the constituents are always to be expected. These interactions depend on the molecular properties of the constituents, and their interdependencies as well as their relations to the observed response(s) are most probably very coraplictated from a theoretical point of view. It is not possible to assume any cause-effect relations between the observable macroscopic properties of the constituents of the reaction system and their chemical behaviour. The chemical behaviour is determined by intrinsic properties at the molecular level. Such properties are not accessible through direct observations. In Capter 15 it was discussed how principal components models can be used to determine the Principal properties. These properties can be assumed to reflect intrinsic molecular properties, and the principal components scores afford measures of how the properties vary over a set of possible reaction systems. The principal properties therefore offers a means of establishing experimental designs by which test systems can be selected so that the set of selected items have a sufficient and desired spread with respect to their intrinsic molecular properties. 

In this paper we explore quantitative risk assessment using a bow-tie model to analyze intangible risk -combining fault tree analysis and event tree analysis in order to estabUsh the cause/effect relations describing a specific imdesired event, see e.g. (Vatn et al. 1996). 

The above example highlights a fundamental difficulty with the correct interpretation of statistical results from observational (i.e., non-randomized) data sets. Since selection effects and dependencies between explanatory variables are common phenomena, a sound interpretation should include careful analysis of possible confounders and requires knowledge or hypotheses about cause-effect relations in advance based on different methods or sources of knowledge. 

Reviewing published occupational epidemiological literature directly pertinent to the interrelations among silica exposure, silicosis, and lung cancer, Checkoway and Franzblau (2000) think that until more conclusive epidemiological findings become available, population-based or individually-based assessments should treat silicosis and lung cancer as distinct entities whose cause/effect relations are not necessary linked. 

Mentioned costs of design, construction and disposal are relatively easy to define, however costs related to the usage phase is much more complicated. To describe all cash flows occurring in that phase Activity Based Costing (ABC) was applied (Sierpinska Niedbala 2003). This method assigns indirect overhead costs and activity costs to the objects, facilities, systems devices, and uses cause—effect relations between factors that generate costs and activities. In other words the ABC concept allows the grouping of the costs by actions i.e. causes of cost. 

Relatively simple mixtures prepared repeatedly in a single laboratory may vary significantly from batch to batch, as is indicated from the detonation results by Rocketdyne on a graphite-chlorinated biphenyl lubricant. In this type of work it is extremely difficult to separate cause-effect relations of formulation from random variations due to the nature of the test,... 

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