Cases countries

There are two major reasons why an organization should be involved in standards, including the international IT Security standards that are important to it. The first concerns the advantages such participation provides and the other concerns the risks that failure to participate allows. For international IT security standards, the results may have minor or major effects on different types of organizations. It must be obvious that IT vendors and particularly IT security vendors have a major stake in these standards. They effect their markets, business, profits and survival. For users, from countries to companies to individuals, the stakes are often less important but not in all cases. Countries are interested in their own protection, in the protection of their own investments, in the protection of their own industries and commerce, and in the protection of their own cultures. Companies have their own markets to protect, their own investments to leverage, and relationships with partners, customers, their countries, and their industries to consider. 

In conclusion, the scale of the plantations has meant that forest plantations have generally had a range of different social impacts in the three case countries (Table 75.3). In Zimbabwe, all ownership types have the resources necessary to improve the management of woodlots, while in Indonesia and Ghana this has not been a problem since management has been undertaken by the forest company or research institute. This finding has also meant that fanners in Indonesia and Ghana had become more dependent on the company or other donors, whereas in Zimbabwe there have been fewer risks to take and less dependence on the forest plantations. 

It is no longer acceptable in most countries to treat decommissioning as an issue that can be ignored until the end of a project. Increasingly operators are being required to return industrial sites to their original condition after use. Many operators now perform a base line survey before they build on an area so that the impact of operations can be quantified, and in some cases so that they are not held responsible for the pollution of previous site owners. 

The urea produced is normally either prilled or granulated. In some countries there is a market for Hquid urea—ammonium nitrate solutions (32% N). In this case, a partial-recycle stripping process is the best and cheapest system. The unconverted NH coming from the stripped urea solution and the reactor off-gas is neutralized with nitric acid. The ammonium nitrate solution formed and the urea solution from the stripper bottom are mixed, resulting in a 32—35 wt % solution. This system drastically reduces investment costs as evaporation, finishing (priQ or granulation), and wastewater treatment are not required. 

Alcohol. The number of driving under the influence of alcohol (DUl) cases reflects the enormity of the dmnken driving problem in the United States (9). Tests to measure blood alcohol concentration are conducted on blood, urine, or breath (10). In the case of urine and breath, the alcohol concentration measured is reported in terms of the equivalent blood alcohol concentration. Most states in the United States presume that a person is under the influence of alcohol with respect to driving a motor vehicle at a blood alcohol concentration of 0.10%, ie, an ethanol concentration >10 g/100 mL of blood. Some states maintain a lower necessary concentration of 0.08%. In some European countries levels are as low as 0.05%. A blood alcohol concentration of 0.10% in a 68-kg (150-lb) person is the equivalent of about four drinks of 80 proof alcohoHc beverage or four 340-g (12-oz) beers in the body at the time of the test (see Beer Beverage spirits, distilled Wine). Ethanol is metabolized at the equivalent rate of about one drink per hour. 

Ferromanganese is produced iu blast fiimaces and electric smelting fiimaces. Economics usually determine which smelting process is chosen for ferromanganese. Both methods require about the same amount of coke for reduction to metal, but iu the case of the blast fiimace, the thermal energy required for the smelting process is suppHed by the combustion of additional coke, which iu most countries is a more expensive form of energy than electricity. 

The nameplate capacity of worldwide methanol plants is given by country in Table 2 (27). A significant portion of this capacity is based on natural gas feedstock. Percent utilization is expected to remain in the low 90s through the mid-1990s. A principal portion of this added capacity is expected to continue to come from offshore sources where natural gas, often associated with cmde oil production, is valued inexpensively. This has resulted in the emergence of a substantial international trade in methanol. In these cases, the cost of transportation is a relatively larger portion of the total cost of production than it is for domestic plants. 

Many countries have adopted chemical substance iaventories ia order to monitor use and evaluate exposure potential and consequences. In the case of essential oils used in many fragrance appHcations, these oils must be on many of these Hsts. New essential oils used in fragrances are subject to premanufactuting or premarketing notification (PMN). PMN requirements vary by country and predicted volume of production. They require assessment of environmental and human health-related properties, and reporting results to designated governmental authorities. 

Countries produciug commodity LLDPE and their capacities, as well as production volumes of some U.S. companies, are Hsted iu Table 5. Iu most cases, an accurate estimate of the total LLDPE production capacity is compHcated by the fact that a large number of plants are used, iu turn, for the manufacture of either HDPE or LLDPE iu the same reactors. VLDPE and LLDPE resius with a uniform branching distribution were initially produced in the United States by Exxon Chemical Company and Dow Chemical Company. However, since several other companies around the world have also aimounced their entry into this market, the worldwide capacity of uniformly branched LLDPE resins in 1995 is expected to reach a million tons. Special grades of LLDPE resins with broad MWD are produced by Phillips Petroleum Co. under the trade name Low Density Linear Polyethylenes or LDLPE. 

Unlike the common practice occurring in other countries, in which award of patent rights is based on the date on which a patent apphcation is filed, in the United States the patent grant is based on the first date of invention. To be an inventor in the United States, an individual must contribute to conception of the invention, and may contribute to reduction of the invention to practice. Although the creation of an advance, development, or apphcation may be conceived by one given individual, it often is the case that the act of invention is the work of many individuals, especially in a commercial context. Accordingly, inventorship questions often arise. 

However, clinical results with compounds enhancing cholinergic function have not been overly convincing (272). In the case of tacriae, however, the beneficial therapeutic iadex was sufficient to justify regulatory approval ia several countries. Psychostimulants such as pemoline, amphetamine, procaine, and methylphenidate have failed to show cognitive enhancing effects ia patients with dementia, except possibly as iadirect consequences of mood elevation. 

Nonferrous Metal Production. Nonferrous metal production, which includes the leaching of copper and uranium ores with sulfuric acid, accounts for about 6% of U.S. sulfur consumption and probably about the same in other developed countries. In the case of copper, sulfuric acid is used for the extraction of the metal from deposits, mine dumps, and wastes, in which the copper contents are too low to justify concentration by conventional flotation techniques or the recovery of copper from ores containing copper carbonate and siUcate minerals that caimot be readily treated by flotation (qv) processes. The sulfuric acid required for copper leaching is usually the by-product acid produced by copper smelters (see Metallurgy, extractive Minerals RECOVERY AND PROCESSING). 

Malaria. Malaria infection occurs in over 30% of the world s population and almost exclusively in developing countries. Approximately 150 X 10 cases occur each year, with one million deaths occurring in African children (87). The majority of the disease in humans is caused by four different species of the malarial parasite. Vaccine development is problematic for several reasons. First, the parasites have a complex life cycle. They are spread by insect vectors and go through different stages and forms (intercellular and extracellular sexual and asexual) as they grow in the blood and tissues (primarily fiver) of their human hosts. In addition, malaria is difficult to grow in large quantities outside the natural host (88). Despite these difficulties, vaccine development has been pursued for many years. An overview of the state of the art is available (89). 

In many places, the need for desalination is even more urgent than the production of food, which is limited by water shortages. These shortages exist both in the petroleum-rich countries and in many of the least-developed and poorest countries of the world. In the case of the former, the improved water supply obtained through desalination has already had stunning effects by contrast, Httie hope for progress is on the horizon for the poor countries. 

Malaria affects an estimated 270 million people and causes 2—3 million deaths annually, approximately one million of which occur in children under the age of five. While primarily an affliction of the tropics and subtropics, it has occurred as far north as the Arctic Circle. The disease essentially has been eradicated in most temperate-zone countries, but some 1100 cases of malaria in U.S. citizens returning from abroad were reported to the Centers for Disease Control during 1990. Malaria is seen today in Southeast Asia, Africa, and Central and South America. It is on the increase in Afghanistan, Brazil, China, India, Mexico, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam. Escalation of the disease is because of the discontinued use of the insecticide DDT which effectively kills mosquito larvae, but has been found to be toxic to Hvestock and wildlife. Also, chloroquine (6), a reUable dmg for the prophylaxis and treatment of falcipamm malaria, is ineffective in many parts of the world because of the spread of dmg-resistant strains. 

Western Europe has seven manufacturers of activated carbon. The two largest, Norit and Chemviron (a subsidiary of Calgon), account for 70% of West European production capacity, and Ceca accounts for 13% (42). Japan is the third largest producer of activated carbon, having 18 manufacturers, but four companies share over 50% of the total Japanese capacity (43). Six Pacific Rim countries account for the balance of the world production capacity of activated carbon, 90% of which is in the Philippines and Sri Lanka (42). As is the case with other businesses, regional markets for activated carbon products have become international, lea ding to consoHdation of manufacturers. Calgon, Norit, Ceca, and Sutcliffe-Speakman are examples of multinational companies. 

Seawater. Salt extraction from seawater is done by most countries having coastlines and weather conducive to evaporation. Seawater is evaporated in a series of concentration ponds until it is saturated with sodium chloride. At this point over 90% of the water has been removed, and some impurities, CaSO and CaCO, have been crystallized. This brine, now saturated in NaCl, is transferred to crystallizer ponds where salt precipitates on the floor of the pond as more water evaporates. Brine left over from the salt crystallizers is called bitterns because of its bitter taste. Bitterns is high in MgCl2, MgSO, and KCl. In some isolated cases, eg, India and China, magnesium and potassium compounds have been commercially extracted, but these represent only a small fraction of total world production. 

An environmental risk in solution mining is surface subsidence. This risk is greatest with embedded salt. No cases of salt subsidence have been reported in mining domes that have been mined according to standard industry approved practice in the United States, but some have been seen in other countries. One side benefit of dome solution mining is use of the cavities later for storage of industrial fluids, chiefly petroleum and natural gas. 

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