Biological and Analytical Applications

1 Biological and Analytical Applications. - NMR spectroscopy studies on organophosphorus compounds possessing biological activity, and relevant analytical applications are included in the appropriate sections. 

NMR spectroscopy in biology with respect to the study of in vitro and in vivo metabolic processes are too numerous to cover in detail but important general reviews and applications are noted below. 

A very exciting in vivo application is the development of paramagnetic complexes as novel NMR pH indicators. The system is based on the remarkable pH dependence of the chemical shift separation (7.0+0.1 ppm/pH unit) observed between the outer H NMR resonances on the spectrum of the ytterbium complex, [Yb(dotp)] (14) in the pH range 5.0 - 7.5 at 39 °C, where Hgdotp represents 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-N,N, N ,N -tetrakis-(methy-lene-phosphonic acid). 

Analytical (non-biologicat) applications are described under the appropriate physical method below, but P NMR spectroscopy has been used to detect trace amounts of chemical warfare agents and related compounds in environmental samples using a combination of H and P NMR spectroscopy.  

---

Biological and Analytical Applications. - Phosphorus-31 n.m.r. continues to expand its application in the medical and biological fields20 and is now being applied to soil analysis.21 The problems involved in the use of FT 31P n.m.r. for quantitative determinations have been discussed.22 Samples of phosphinic carboxylic acids were cooled to -40°Cfor quantitative estimations.23... 

Kandimalla, V.B., Tripathi, V.S. and Ju, H.X. (2006) Immobilization of biomolecules in sol-gels Biological and analytical applications. Critical Reviews in Analytical Chemistry, 36, 73-106. 

The last chapter by Lo described the luminescent properties of some recent examples of transition metal complexes that can be employed as luminescent labels and probes for bio-molecules. The structural design of the metal complexes, the labeling and probing strategies, the spectroscopic and luminescent properties of the complexes and their bio-conjugates as well as their biological and analytical applications were presented. 

Hearn, M.T.W., Smith, P.K., Mallia, A.K., and Hermanson, G.T. (1983) Preparative and analytical applications of CDI-mediated affinity chromatography. In Affinity Chromatography and Biological Recognition, pp. 191-196. Academic Press, New York. 

SEC offers several advantages that make it a desirable technique for both preparative and analytical applications. First, separations are rapid with an 8 x 300 mm analytical column operated at 1 ml/min, all analytes elute in about 10 min. Second, because the stationary phase is designed to eliminate interactions with the sample, SEC columns exhibit excellent recovery of mass and biological activity. Third, because all separations are performed under isocratic conditions, peak area and retention time precision are high. 

Nowadays, ESI is the leading member of the group of atmospheric pressure ionization (API) methods and the method of choice for liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry coupling (LC-MS, Chap. 12). [10-13] Currently, ESI and MALDI (Chap. 10) are the most commonly employed ionization methods and they opened doors to the widespread biological and biomedical application of mass spectrometry. [5,10,11,13-17] Moreover, ESI serves well for the analysis of ionic metal complexes [18,19] and other inorganic analytes. [20-22]... 

Displacement chromatography was named and introduced by Tiselius [1] who demonstrated its utility in both preparative and analytical applications. Tiselius explored separations of many different biological substances including amino acids and peptides [2,3]. The technique was also used... 

In addition to ICP-MS for the multi-element analysis of aqueous solutions, LA-ICP-MS allows the direct determination of trace elements in biological samples and due to this feature it is a well suited analytical technique for microlocal analysis with spatial resolution. In 1995, Outridge el al.lg reported on the performance of an LA-ICP-MS analysis for studying incremental biological structures as archives of trace element accumulation. The use of LA-ICP-MS for several biological (and environmental) applications is reviewed by Durrant and Ward.19 Selected examples for determination of trace elements and species in biological samples are summarized in Table 9.25. 

Oxidoreductases comprise a large class of enzymes that catalyze biological oxidation/reduction reactions. Because so many chemical transformation processes involve oxidation/reduction processes, the idea of developing practical applications of oxidoreductase enzymes has been a very attractive, but quite elusive, goal for many years [83], Applications have been sought for the production of pharmaceuticals, synthesis and modification of polymers, and the development of biosensors for a variety of clinical and analytical applications [83], In recent years, the use of oxido-reductive enzymes to catalyze the removal of aromatic compounds from... 

Recently, the SERS effect has been used increasingly for highly sensitive sensor devices for biological and medical applications as well as in practical analytical chemistry (Alivisatos, 2004 Emory and Nie, 1998 Faulds et al., 2004 Ishikawa et al., 2002 Kneipp et al., 1995 Wang et al., 2003), and the field of catalysis certainly will see a comparable increase in SERS investigations of active metal catalysts (vide infra). 

Jones RN (1985) Analytical Applications of Vibrational Spectroscopy - A Historical Review. In Durig JR (ed) Chemical, Biological and Industrial Applications of Infrared Spectroscopy. John Wiley Sons, pp 1 - 50... 

Interfaces between two immiscible solutions with dissolved electrolytes, which are most interesting to workers in several disciplines, cover theoretical physical electrochemistry and analytical applications for sensor design. These interfaces are used in interpretation of processes that occur in biological membranes and in biological systems. The interface between two immiscible electrolyte solutions was studied for the first time at least 100 years ago by Nemst (I), who performed the experiments that provide the theoretical basis for current potentiometric and voltammetric studies of interfaces. In 1963, Blank and Feig (2) suggested that an interface between two immiscible liquids could be used as a model (at least as a crude approximation) for... 

In view of the wide spectrum of reagents, analytes, applications, systems, and their combinations involved, this article was written to inform readers about the reagents used in spectrophotometric analysis, with emphasis on inorganic species (cationic and anionic) because of their importance in analysis and to provide examples found in the literature, mainly from 1998 onwards. Figure 1 provides examples of applications of spectrophotometry in different areas, such as environmental, biological, and pharmaceutical applications. From this figure, it can be concluded that the majority of applications relate to water, alloy, and food samples in which cationic species are determined. For anionic species, once again, water was the main matrix analyzed. 

---