Battery definitions

The fixed capital estimate depends on the definition of the plant. A grass-roots plant is a complete faciUty at a new location, including all utihties, services, storage faciUties, land, and improvements. If a process plant is located at an existing processing complex, it can usually share some of these auxihary faciUties. A battery-limits plant is defined as the process faciUty itself, so that the auxiUaries, off-site, and land-related items are excluded from the fixed capital estimation. However, a battery-limits plant maybe assigned allocated capital charges for the share of common utihty and service faciUties used by the plant. 

Early in the life of a project, information has not been developed to allow definitive cost estimates based on material takeoff and vendor quotes for equipment. Therefore, it is necessary to estimate the cost of a facility using shortcut methods. The first step is to develop or check flow-sheets, major equipment sizes, and specification sheets as described in earlier chapters. From the equipment specification sheets, the cost of each piece of equipment is estimated, using techniques discussed later. Once the major equipment cost has been estimated, the total battery limit plant cost can he quickly estimated using factors developed on a similar project. 

The enormous scope of the subject of corrosion follows from the definition which has been adopted in the present work. Corrosion will include all reactions at a metal/environment interface irrespective of whether the reaction is beneficial or detrimental to the metal concerned —no distinction is made between chemical or electropolishing of a metal in an acid and the adventitious deterioration of metal plant by acid attack. It follows, therefore, that a comprehensive work on the subject of corrosion should include an account of batteries, electrorefining, chemical machining, chemical and electrochemical polishing, etc. 

Surprisingly little attention has been given hitherto to the definition of the laboratory. A space has to be specially adapted to deserve that title. It would be easy to assume that the two leading experimental sciences, physics and chemistry, have historically depended in a similar way on access to a laboratory. But while chemistry, through its alchemical ancestry with batteries of stills, had many fully fledged laboratories by the seventeenth century, physics was discovering the value of mathematics. Even experimental physics was content to make use of almost any indoor space, if not outdoors, ignoring the possible value of a laboratory. The development of the physics laboratory had to wait until the nineteenth century... 

Shredded circuit boards. Circuit boards are metal boards that hold computer chips, thermostats, batteries, and other electronic components. Circuit boards can be found in computers, televisions, radios, and other electronic equipment. When this equipment is thrown away, these boards can be removed and recycled. Whole circuit boards meet the definition of scrap metal, and are therefore exempt from hazardous waste regulation when recycled. On the other hand, some recycling processes involve shredding the board. Such shredded boards do not meet the exclusion for recycled scrap metal. In order to facilitate the recycling of such materials, U.S. EPA excluded recycled shredded circuit boards from the definition of solid waste, provided that they are stored in containers sufficient to prevent release to the environment, and are free of potentially dangerous components, such as mercury switches, mercury relays, nickel-cadmium batteries, and lithium batteries. 

By a strict definition, these electrical and electronic wastes are hazardous. Fluorescent lamps contain mercury, and almost all fluorescents fail the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) toxicity test for hazardous wastes. Fluorescent lamp ballasts manufactured in the mid-1980s contain polychorinated biphenyls (PCBs), a carcinogen most of these ballasts are still in service. Batteries can contain any of a number of hazardous materials, including cadmium (nickel-cadmium... 

The existence and use of batteries is thought to have roots in prehistoric times, whereby, through archeological discoveries, it was discovered that prehistoric people had created an electrochemical cell that would qualify, under today s definition, as a battery. A curiosity found in Baghdad in 1932 was probably representative of battery technology dating as far back as 2500 years.1 Such a primitive... 

In this paper, we presented new information, which should help in optimising disordered carbon materials for anodes of lithium-ion batteries. We clearly proved that the irreversible capacity is essentially due to the presence of active sites at the surface of carbon, which cause the electrolyte decomposition. A perfect linear relationship was shown between the irreversible capacity and the active surface area, i.e. the area corresponding to the sites located at the edge planes. It definitely proves that the BET specific surface area, which represents the surface area of the basal planes, is not a relevant parameter to explain the irreversible capacity, even if some papers showed some correlation with this parameter for rather low BET surface area carbons. The electrolyte may be decomposed by surface functional groups or by dangling bonds. Coating by a thin layer of pyrolytic carbon allows these sites to be efficiently blocked, without reducing the value of reversible capacity. 

For ESD isolation valves (i.e., EIVs) a fail safe mode is normally defined as fail closed in order to prevent the continued flow of fuel to the incident. Blowdown or depressurization valves would be specified as fail open to allow inventories to be disposed of during an incident. Special circumstances may require the use of a foil steady valve for operational or performance reasons. These applications are usually at isolation valves at components, i.e., individual vessels, pumps, etc., where a backup EIV is provided at the battery limits that is specified as fail closed. The fail safe mode can be defined by the action that is taken when the ESD system is activated. Since the function of the ESD system is to place the facility in its safest mode, by definition the ESD activation mode is the foil safe mode. 

To summarize the utility of nonexperimental methods, it is obvious that the more available information there is about a compound, the more likely one will be able to substantially reduce the amount of testing involved in prediction of ocular irritation potential. However, at this point in time, none of the individual methods, alone or in combination, are sufficiently predictive to provide a definitive assessment of in vivo ocular irritation. There is definitely a place, however, for consideration of the above factors in a battery of tests, as well as for prioritizing compounds to be tested further. 

Energy Conversion Devices (ECD) of Troy, Michigan has announced a potential breakthrough in solid hydrogen storage. ECD is one of the parent companies of GM Ovonics, patent holder for the nickel metal hydride battery. A hydride, by definition, is a solid material that stores hydrogen. 

Core Battery, Follow-Up, and Supplemental Studies Definitions and Expectations... 

The following definitions are used during the course of discussions on batteries, fuel cells, and electrochemical capacitors. 

As a compromise between the above two approaches, the third approach adopts nonactive (inert) materials as working electrodes with neat electrolyte solutions and is the most widely used voltammetry technique for the characterization of electrolytes for batteries, capacitors, and fuel cells. Its advantage is the absence of the reversible redox processes and passivations that occur with active electrode materials, and therefore, a well-defined onset or threshold current can usually be determined. However, there is still a certain arbitrariness involved in this approach in the definition of onset of decomposition, and disparities often occur for a given electrolyte system when reported by different authors Therefore, caution should be taken when electrochemical stability data from different sources are compared. 

Thermal Stability. Lithium-ion batteries can be poisoned by water, and so materials going into the cell are typically dried at 80 °C under vacuum. Under these conditions, the separator must not shrink significantly and definitely must not wrinkle. Each battery manufacturer has specific drying procedures. The requirement of less than 5% shrinkage after 60 min at 90 °C (in a vacuum) in both MD and TD direction is a reasonable generalization. 

Figure 7. Top panels Schematic diagram of 3-D cylindrical battery arrays in parallel row (left) and alternating anode/cathode (right) configurations. Middle panels Isopotential lines between cathode (C) and anode (A) for unit battery cells. Bottom panel Current densities (in arbitrary units, a.u.) at the electrode surfaces as a function of the angle 9 (see middle panel for definition of 9). The area of the cathodes and anodes is equal throughout the diagram. (Reprinted with permission from ref 19. Copyright 2003 Elsevier.)...

Figure 1. Conceptual product definitions of enzyme-based biofuel cells as they are compared in their specific energy and energy density to the existing primary battery technology. Based on Figure 2 of ref 15. Reproduced with permission. Copyright 1999 The Electrochemical Society, Inc.

Figure 1 Juxtaposes the energy fields of these three potential product definitions with that of conventional primary battery technology. The data on the energy densities for the battery product definitions were adopted from a recent technology review. The expected energy performance figures for biofuel cells...

A simple definition of a power conversion circuit is a circuit that converts a power source of a certain characteristic (e.g., 110 V AC battery voltage, spacecraft bus) into a power source with a more desirable characteristic (e.g., regulated +5V DC for digital logic, constant current sources). A wide variety of these circuits are presented in this chapter. 

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