Associated Risk Factors

Devices that circumvent host defenses and facilitate the transmission of bacteria into the lung have been identified as risk factors for NP (17,22,24,29-31,35,41,55,59,74,128) (Tables 3 and 4). This includes devices in contact with the respiratory tract for diagnostic purposes (e.g., bronchoscopes) or therapeutic purposes (e.g., endotracheal tubes, nebulizers). Devices are readily colonized by nosocomial bacteria with transmission frequently occurring by way of contaminated hands of health care workers from other patients, devices, or other body sites of the same patient. Certain devices also predispose the patient 

Marcel Dekker, Inc. 270 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 

Risk factor Preventive measure CDC/ HICPAC Kollef category (VAP)  

Oxygen delivery system Change tubing between patients IB NS 

Spirometer Clean sterUize/disinfect between patients IB NS 

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Supplements of 400 Ig/d of folate begun before conception result in a significant reduction in the incidence of neural mbe defects as found in spina bifida. Elevated blood homocysteine is an associated risk factor for atherosclerosis, thrombosis, and hypertension. The condition is due to impaired abihty to form methyl-tetrahydrofolate by methylene-tetrahydrofolate reductase, causing functional folate deficiency and resulting in failure to remethylate homocysteine to methionine. People with the causative abnormal variant of methylene-tetrahydrofolate reductase do not develop hyperhomocysteinemia if they have a relatively high intake of folate, but it is not yet known whether this affects the incidence of cardiovascular disease. 

The most useful tool in the diagnosis of GERD is the clinical history, including both the presenting symptoms and associated risk factors. Patients presenting with uncomplicated,... 

Pharmacovigilance is evolving from being a largely reactive discipline, concentrating on the discovery of harm caused by marketed drugs, to a proactive study of their safety, effectiveness and associated risk factors in normal medical practice and use by patients. 

Life-style measures that are widely agreed to lower blood pressure and that should be considered in all patients in whom they may apply are weight reduction, reduction of excessive alcohol consumption, reduction of high salt intake and increase in physical activity. Particular emphasis should be placed on cessation of smoking and on healthy eating patterns that contribute to the treatment of associated risk factors and cardiovascular diseases. 

Cancer-associated risk factor. Infusion of the seed, administered orally to adults, produced equivocal effect on urinary bladder... 

Air supply systems must be designed to avoid the introduction of contaminants into air flows or into manufacturing areas local environmental conditions and associated risk factors. Air supply systems must be validated, operated, monitored, and controlled to deliver the required air quality. 

A review of the published literature (28 eyes in 25 patients) has shown that in all cases there were other associated risk factors, so that a definitive conclusion about a causal relation cannot be reached (30). Nevertheless, latanoprost should be used with caution in patients with risk factors for cystoid macular edema and special surveillance is necessary. 

Roberts RE, Shema SJ, Kaplan GA (1999) Prospective data on sleep complaints and associated risk factors in an older cohort. Psychosom Med 61 188-196... 

This review generated responses from other authorities in the field. Some commented that the conclusions may be premature, given the age of the subjects, and drew attention to several studies that have shown subtle but consistent deficits in cognitive and attentional processes in 6-and 7-year-old children (302). These effects may become more prominent as development continues and may persist into adulthood. Others criticized the attempt to isolate cocaine exposure from all other associated risk factors from a public health perspective, prenatal cocaine exposure clusters with other risk factors, such as poor caregiving, child maltreatment, domestic violence, and prenatal exposure to other substances (303). Furthermore, the selection criteria narrowed the total articles reviewed to under half of the 74 articles found. Others suggested that the study had been misinterpreted (304). 

Aggressive treatment ofType I, and probably Type 2. Successfully reduces microvascular complications. Close attention to associated risk factors, especially hyperlipidaemia and hypertension, is important in reducing risk of macrovascular disease. 

Park Y-W, Zhu S, Palaniappan L, et al. The metabolic syndrome prevalence and associated risk factor findings in the US population from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. Arch Intern Med 2003 163 427-436. 

The waist-to-hip ratio has been used instead of the waist circumference as a measure of abdominal obesity in an attempt to correct for differences between individuals with respect to body type or bone structure. In this measurement, the waist circumference is divided by the hip circumference (measured at the iliac crest). The average waist-to-hip ratio for men is 0.93 (with a range of 0.75-1.10), and the average for women was 0.83 (with a range of 0.70-1.00). However, the waist circumference may actually correlate better with intraabdominal fat and the associated risk factors than the waist-to-hip ratio. 

Collaborative Group for the study of sttoke in young women. Oral contraceptives and stroke in young women associated risk factors. JAMA (1975) 231, 718-22. 

Epidemiology is the branch of medical science that studies the occurrence of disease in human populations How many people in the population have the disease Are there common factors that distinguish people with the disease from those who are free of it How is it spread Why does it occur in a particular place Are there associated risk factors What causes the disease What can be done to prevent or control it Epidemiology is tasked with answering these questions, which will always have important public-health implications. 

Baseline diagnostic evaluation for erectile dysfunction can identify the underlying pathological conditions and associated risk factors in 80% of patients. Such screening may diagnose reversible causes of erectile dysfunction and also unmasks medical conditions that manifest with erectile dysfunction as the first symptom (Hatzichristou et al. 2002). 

Fig. 12.2 Factors affecting processability of MBP and the associated risk factors...

C.N. Halldin, B.C. Doney, E. Hnizdo, Changes in prevalence of chronic obstmctive pulmonary disease and asthma in the US population and associated risk factors, Chron. Respir. Dis. 12 (1) (2015) 47—60. 

O Heany, J., Kusiak, R., Duncan, C.E., Smith, L.F., Spielberg, L., 1988. Blood lead and associated risk factors in Ontario children. Sci. Total Environ. 71, 477—483. 

Beach KW, Strandness DE Jr. Arteriosclerosis, obliterans and associated risk factors that the insulin dependent and non-insulin dependent diabetes. Diabetes 1980 29 882-888. 

Saussez S, Javadian R, Hupin C, Magremarme M, Chantrain G, Loeb I, Decaestecker C. Bisphosphonate-related osteonecrosis of the jaw and its associated risk factors a Belgian case series. Lar3m-goscope 2009 119(2) 323-9. 

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