Archeology

Plenary 79. FI G M Edwards, e-mail address h.g.m.edwards bradford.ac.uk (NIR-FTRS). A review of recent applications of RS to archeology—characterizing ancient pigments, human skin, bone, ivories, teeth, resins, waxes and gums. Aging effects and dating possibilities. Emphasizes use of microscopic Raman. 

Ammo acid racemization (Section 27 2) A method for dating archeological samples based on the rate at which the stereo chemistry at the a carbon of ammo acid components is ran domized It is useful for samples too old to be reliably dated by decay... 

Thermal neutron activation analysis has been used for archeological samples, such as amber, coins, ceramics, and glass biological samples and forensic samples (see Forensic chemistry) as weU as human tissues, including bile, blood, bone, teeth, and urine laboratory animals geological samples, such as meteorites and ores and a variety of industrial products (166). 

Mass Spectrometer. The mass spectrometer is the principal analytical tool of direct process control for the estimation of tritium. Gas samples are taken from several process points and analy2ed rapidly and continually to ensure proper operation of the system. Mass spectrometry is particularly useful in the detection of diatomic hydrogen species such as HD, HT, and DT. Mass spectrometric detection of helium-3 formed by radioactive decay of tritium is still another way to detect low levels of tritium (65). Accelerator mass spectroscopy (ams) has also been used for the detection of tritium and carbon-14 at extremely low levels. The principal appHcation of ams as of this writing has been in archeology and the geosciences, but this technique is expected to faciUtate the use of tritium in biomedical research, various clinical appHcations, and in environmental investigations (66). 

In the 90"s of the last century members of the Archeological and Ethnographical Institute of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences have excavated on the plateau Ukok in the Republic Mountain Altai several frozen graves. 

J. M. Michels, Dating Methods in Archeology, Seminar Press, New York, 1973, 230 pp., S. Fleming, Dating in Archeology A Guide to Scientific Techniques Dent, London, 1976, 272 pp. 

W. F. Libby (Los Angeles) use of carbon-14 for age determination in archeology, geology, geophysics, and other branches of science. 

Charcoal is perhaps the oldest known fuel, having been found in archeological sites dating as far back as the Pleistocene era. Charcoal is a relatively smokeless and odorless fuel, and thus ideal for cooking and heating. 

Exponential decay is quite regular starting with a given amount of a substance at t = 0, this amount will fall to V2 its original value after one half-life, to 1/4 after two half-lives, Vs after three half-lives, and so forth. This regularity has its usefulness, and the decay of has been widely employed to date archeological artifacts [3]. 

Pipelines have a long history. In ancient times, pipelines were used for water transport. Examples are still visible in archeologic areas. However, it is clear that these early constructions could not bear large pressures. The advent of gas pipelines started between 1820 and 1830 with the distribution of town gas. Nowadays pipelines are indispensable in petroleum industries for the transport of various materials, including natural gas, crude oil of various types, and refined products. 

HPLC with thermospray MS was reported by Hurst et al.40 where residues from an archeological site were analyzed for caffeine and theobromine using reversed phase HPLC coupled to a thermospray MS interface. Samples were extracted in water and separated on a reversed phase column. The presence of theobromine in this sample was confirmed by monitoring the MH+ ion at 181 for theobromine. 

Anderson, Robert. "The archeology of chemistry." In Instruments and experimentation, eds. Frederic L. Holmes and Trevor H. Levere, 5-34. Cambridge (MA) MIT Press, 2000. 

The existence and use of batteries is thought to have roots in prehistoric times, whereby, through archeological discoveries, it was discovered that prehistoric people had created an electrochemical cell that would qualify, under today s definition, as a battery. A curiosity found in Baghdad in 1932 was probably representative of battery technology dating as far back as 2500 years.1 Such a primitive... 

Bar Yosef, O. (2000), The impact of radiocarbon dating on Old World archeology Past achievements and future expectations, Radiocarbon 42(1), 23-39. 

Cortnan, J. (1996), Chemical sleuths on ancient trails - molecular archeology reveals secrets of past civilizations, Sci. Spectra 5, 30-35. 

Copley, M. S., H. A. Bland, P. Rose, M. Horton, and R. P. Evershed (2005), Gas chromatographic, mass spectrometric and stable carbon isotopic investigations of organic residues of plant oils and animal fats employed as illuminants in archeological lamps from Egypt, Analyst 130, 860-871. 

Holland, R. (2007), Event review what s cooking in archeological chemistry Digging deep for clues about life in ancient times, Chem. and bid. 5, 32. 

Longworth, G. (1984), Study of ceramics and archeological materials, in Long, G. L., Mossbauer Spectroscopy Applied to Inorganic Chemistry, Plenum, New York, pp. 511-526. 

Regert, M. and C. Rolando (2002), Identification of archeological adhesives using direct inlet electron ionization mass spectrometry, Anal. Chem. 74(5), 965-975. 

Scorzelli, R. B., S. Petrick, A. M. Rossi, G. Poupeau, and G. Bigazzi (2001), Obsidian archeological artefacts provenance studies in the western Mediterranean basin An approach by Mossbauer spectroscopy and electron paramagnetic resonance, C. R. Acad. Sci., Series Ila, Sciences de la Terre et des Planetes, 332(12), 769-776. 

Lawrence, J. G. and Ochman, H. (1998), Molecular archeology of the Escherichia coli genome , Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 95, 9413-9417. 

I. Surowiec, B. Szostek and M. Trojanowicz, HPLC MS of anthraquinoids, flavonoids, and their degradation products in analysis of natural dyes in archeological objects, J. Sep. Sci., 30, 2070 2079 (2007). 

Sharp, Z. D., Atudoreia, V., Panarellob, H. O., Fernandezb, J. and Douthitt, C. (2003) Hydrogen isotope systematics of hair archeological and forensic applications. Journal of Archaeological Science 30, 1709. 

The scope of this branch of chemistry encompasses both the fundamental understanding of how to measure properties and amounts of chemicals, and the practical understanding of how to implement such measurements, including the design of the necessary instruments. The need for analytical measurements arises in all research disciplines, industrial sectors, and human activities that entail the need to know not only the identities and amounts of chemical components in a mixture, but also how they are distributed in space and time. These sectors of need include research in specific disciplines (such as chemistry, physics, materials science, geology, archeology, medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry) and in interdisciplinary areas (such as forensic, atmospheric, and environmental sciences), as well as the needs of government policy, space exploration, and commerce. 

Olson, S., "Genetic Archeology of Race," Atlantic Monthly, (April, 2001) 287, 69-80... 

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