Soils archaeological

The terms archaeological soils, archaeosols, anthroposols, and paleosols are variously used to refer to soils that have been physically and/or chemically altered by human habitahon or achvity. The soil of a site constitutes an integral part of its archaeological record (Wells 2004). It is a well-known fact, for example, that in areas of intense ancient human habitation the ferhlity of the soil is higher than that of the surroundings. Dark soils rich in organic matter often define, with considerable precision, areas of past intensive human achvity. 

One of fhe disadvanfages of early phosphorus surveys was not long ago, the need to obtain a relatively large number of heavy soil samples, which had to be taken to a chemical laboratory for analysis. In later studies, however, use has been made of portable equipment that makes it possible to analyze, even in the field, very small samples, and statistically appraise the analytical results (Persson 1997). 

Archaeological Chemistry, Second Edition By Zvi Goffer Copyright 2007 John Wiley Sons, Inc. 

Chemically, all clays are composed of oxides of silicon, aluminum, and hydrogen - namely, silicon dioxide, aluminum frioxide, and water in a weight proportion that can be expressed by the following general formula (see Fig. 50)  

There are a number of different clays, and some of the most common are listed in Table 55. The composition of each clay can be expressed by a formula that differs slightly from the general formula given above. Chemical composihon alone, however, is not sufficient for characterizing clays their crystal structure provides the best way of characterizing any t) e of clay (see Textbox 21). In many clays, for example, the atoms are grouped in 

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Evershed, R. P. and P. H. Bethell (1996), Application of Multi-molecular Biomarker Techniques to the Identification of Faecal Material in Archaeological Soils and Sediments, ACS Symposium Series, Vol. 625, pp. 157-172. 

Linderholm, J. and E. Lundberg (1994), Chemical characterization of various archaeological soil samples using main and trace elements determined by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry,. Archaeol. Sci. 21, 303-314. 

Wells, E. C. (2004), A brief history of archaeological soil chemistry, Newsletter Int. Union of Soil Sci. Soil Sci. Soc. America 11, 2-4. 

Archaeological Soils and Sediments Application of Microfocus Synchrotron X-ray Scattering, Diffraction, and Fluorescence Analyses in Thin-... 

Archaeological soils and sediments reflect the cultural environment in which they have been formed. Their analysis allows assessment of the nature and intensity of past events. With the results of such analyses playing an increasing role in forming archaeological interpretations, there is a need to verify optical analysis and interpretation of materials and to examine materials that are presently considered amorphous or unknown in conventional optical analyses. This paper discusses the use of microfocus sychrotron X-ray methods and the issues surrounding their application to archaeological soils and sediments. 

Several other microanalytical methods in common use potentially have application on soil and sediments section samples. Laser-ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometery (LA-ICP-MS) has been used on soil thin-sections from a controlled field experiment (21) but required special resins in the preparation. There is presently (May 2006) no reported use of this method on archaeological soil samples. Likewise, for extremely fine-resolution studies (i.e. <10 pm) with low minimum detection limits and despite difficult calibration, secondary ion microscopy (SIMS) has a potential role in examining archaeological soil thin sections. At even higher lateral resolutions ( 100 nm) Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) could also be considered for surface (<5 nm deep) analyses. At present however, the use of these methods in soil systems is limited. SIMS has been focused on biochemical applications (22), whereas AES... 

Bone and enamel, archaeological, strontium isotope analysis, 102-104 Bone chemistry, principles, 116-117 Bone materials in archaeological soils and sediments, 198, 200-204 Botswana prehistoric mines, specular hermatite source fingerprinting, 460-479... 

The workhorses of analytical chemistry (atomic absorption, x-ray fluorescence, and neutron activation analyses) continue to provide mainstream contributions to our understanding of pottery, glass, metal, and stone artifacts. Stronger attention is now also directed to archaeological soils, to bone and shell, to inks and pigments, and to organic materials such as gums, lacquers, and textiles. 

Woods, W. I., An Archaeological Soils Investigation at the Fort I Site in Randolph County, Illinois, report submitted to the Illinois Department of Conservation, Springfield, 1981. 

Chemical Analysis of Archaeological Soils from Yagi Site, Japan... 

Stimmel, C.A., R.G.V. Hancock, and A.M. Davis. 1984. Chemical analysis of archaeological soils from Yagi Site, Japan. In Archaeological Chemistry III, J.P. Lambert (ed.), pp. 79-96. Washington, D.C. American Chemical Society. 

The development of GC coupled via a combustion furnace to an IRMS (GC-C-IRMS) has allowed the analysis of individual compounds occurring at trace levels in very complex mixtures. Sometimes referred to as compound specific isotope analysis or isotope ratio monitoring MS (GC-irmMS), this technique has opened new fields of research in areas such as organic geochemistry, food science, medicine, nutrition, sport, forensic science, archaeology, soil science, and extraterrestrial science. The chromatographic separation in connection with the combustion of the analyte, however, exerts the strongest influence on the uncertainty of the measurement. Multidimensional GC (GC/GC) has also been coupled to IRMS for the authentication of flavor components. 

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