Stone artifacts

Domanski, M., J. A. Webb, and J. Boland (1994), Mechanical properties of stone artifact materials and the effect on heat treatment, Archaeometry 36, 177-208. 

Figure 2. Stone artifact (hand-ax) embedded in travertine in the Zuttiyeh cave,...

This chapter is an overview of the wide variety of archaeological studies conducted by chemists. From the earliest stone artifacts to the artistic manuscripts and textiles of the more recent past, the studies presented in this volume show the wide range of materials that have been studied by chemical techniques. The field keeps expanding as chemists help provide information valuable in the interpretation of archaeological sites and artifacts. Besides helping to detect fraudulent artifacts and artistic objects in museum collections, chemists have studied the physicochemical deterioration processes that destroy the monuments and objects of the past. Thus, the role of chemists is more than just discovery of the past it includes investigation that may help preserve the artifacts for future generations to enjoy and study. 

Human culture can be observed in the physical artifacts of the past. Even without recorded histories, the partial record of materials that have survived the ravages of time provides us with insight into ancient times. The oldest surviving materials are human bones and the simple stone artifacts that are evidence of ancient workmanship. The stone (or lithic) tools can be used to describe early culture. Whether we study the rough chipped-stone implements of the Paleolithic era or the finer microblade tools of the Neolithic era, it is clear that early humans knew the mechanical properties of many natural materials. It was not until much later that the methods of chemical transformation were learned. 

Chemical methods can sometimes be used to distinguish between stone artifacts that are made with very similar materials. Lithic raw materials were chosen because of properties, such as hardness, that depend upon crystallinity and chemical composition. Geochemical processes determine both the chemical composition and physical properties of the rock. In many cases, lithic artifacts do not require chemical analysis to show that they are made from different materials. A simple visual examination is frequently sufficient. 

Although x-ray radiography equipment used for paintings is sometimes suitable for the study of objects made of wood, ivory, bone, or other organic materials and for some ceramics, most three-dimensional objects require more powerful equipment. Industrial x-ray radiography units with a maximum x-ray energy of 200-300 kV are required for most metal and stone artifacts and for large ceramics. 

The workhorses of analytical chemistry (atomic absorption, x-ray fluorescence, and neutron activation analyses) continue to provide mainstream contributions to our understanding of pottery, glass, metal, and stone artifacts. Stronger attention is now also directed to archaeological soils, to bone and shell, to inks and pigments, and to organic materials such as gums, lacquers, and textiles. 

Stone artifacts made by our human ancestors date back earlier than two million... 

They also examined a large number of authentic cut crystal and hard-stone artifacts from documented Olmec, Maya, Aztec, and Mixtec contexts for comparative purposes. The SEM results showed for the British Museum skull unambiguous evidence of high-speed rotary disc cutting and the use of exU emely hard abrasives. Although diamond and corundum are two naturally occurring abrasives of adequate hardness, they were not in use in ancient Mesoamerica and the authentic artifacts showed no such SEM evidence. 

Flake A type of stone artifact produced by removing a piece from a core by chipping or knapping. Flakes are made into a variety of different kinds of tools or used for their sharp edges (without further retouching). 

Lithic assemblage The complete set of stone artifacts found at an archaeological site. 

Lithics A generic term used for stone artifacts in archaeology and more specifically for flaked stone artifacts. 

Ivy-Ochs S, Wiist R, Kubik PW, Miiller-Beck H, Schliichter C (2001) Can we use cosmogenic isotopes to date stone artifacts Radiocarbon (in press)... 

Lithics Study of stone artifacts, such as tools or weapons. 

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