And hypnosis

Winters WD, Kott KS Continuum of sedation, activation and hypnosis or hallucinosis a comparison of low dose effects of pentobarbital, diazepam or gamma-hydroxy-butyrate in the cat. Neuropharmacology 18 877—884, 1979... 

The endogenous analgesic system is normally inactive. It remains unclear how this system becomes activated. Potential activating factors include exercise, stress, acupuncture, and hypnosis. 

Gulyani, S Majumdar, S. Mallick, B. N. (2000). Rapid eye movement sleep and significance of its deprivation studies - a review. Sleep and Hypnosis 2, 49-68. 

The clinical consequences of the currently used benzodiazepines range from sedation, muscle relaxation, seizure reduction, anxiolysis, and hypnosis. Clearly, it would be highly desirable to be able to separate some of these effects. In addition, it would be useful to reduce other undesirable consequences such as development of tolerance and dependence, abuse, synergistic interaction with ethanol, and memory impairment (for a comprehensive review see [22]). Animal models for some of the aforementioned conditions, in combination with transgenic mouse technology, have recently led to a deeper understanding of the contribution some of the individual a subunits make to these behaviors. 

Pharmacology These agents depress the sensory cortex, decrease motor activity, alter cerebellar function, and produce drowsiness, sedation, and hypnosis. Barbiturates have little analgesic action at subanesthetic doses and may increase the reaction to painful stimuli. All barbiturates exhibit anticonvulsant activity in anesthetic doses. However, only phenobarbital and mephobarbital are effective as oral anticonvulsants in subhypnotic doses. 

CNS effects include decreased pain perception, altered reaction to pain, euphoria and hypnosis, nausea and vomiting, respiratory depression and suppression of cough reflexes. Increased tone of the gastrointestinal tract is primarily mediated by fx receptors in the bowel. 

Flumazenil Romazicon) is a benzodiazepine antagonist that specifically reverses the respiratory depression and hypnosis produced by the benzodiazepine receptor agonists. Its block of the amnesic effect of the agonists is less reliable. Flumazenil is particularly useful when an overdose of benzodiazepines has occurred. It is also employed when a benzodiazepine has been used to produce conscious sedation and rapid recovery of psychomotor competency is desirable. To avoid resedation, flumazenil may require administration by intravenous infusion. 

Mechanism of Action A barbilurale lhal depresses Ihe sensory corlex, decreases mo-lor aclivily, and allers cerebellar funclion. Therapeutic Effect Produces drowsiness, sedalion, and hypnosis. 

Table 22-3 Dosages of Drugs Used Commonly for Sedation and Hypnosis. ...

Nefazodone Inhibition of 5- 2 receptor nefazodone also blocks SERT weakly Trazodone forms a metabolite (m-cpp) that blocks 5-HT2A,2C receptors Major depression sedation and hypnosis (trazodone) Relatively short half-lives active metabolites Toxicity Modest receptor blockade (trazodone) Interactions Nefazodone inhibits CYP3A4... 

Sedation and hypnosis (sleep from which arousal is easy) represent lower levels of CNS depression, and increasing doses of sedative-hypnotic drugs will produce sedation, hypnosis, anaesthesia and death from respiratory depression. Like anaesthesia, sedation is produced by compounds of varied structure and the involvement of a specific receptor is improbable, but at lower doses some of these drugs affect specific centers in the brain before others are depressed. 

On the Recollective-Analytic level, a large part of the phenomena are familiar ones in the literatures of psychoanalysis and hypnosis. The unconscious materials are unusually accessible, and the patient may recall or live through traumatic experiences from his early life. The events may be seen (eidetic images), or felt to be occurring, or vividly remembered. The patient, perhaps assisted by the therapist, can immediately review the recollection or age regression with an adult consciousness that interprets the events more appropriately than the child did. Even as the trauma is recalled or relived, a coexisting adult consciousness can draw mature conclusions. Even if abreaction does not occur, interpretation by the mature consciousness may still prove therapeutic. 

Some of the benzodiazepines, such as alprazolam (Xanax) and triazolam (Halcion), bind especially tightly to the GABA receptors. This causes more intense sedation and hypnosis, as well as more severe rebound and withdrawal symptoms. 

The binding of BZs to the GABA receptors is most intense in the cerebral cortex. Some BZs, such as Xanax and Halcion, bind especially tightly, increasing their tendency to produce more intense sedation and hypnosis, and also more severe cognitive deficits, behavioral abnormalities, rebound, and withdrawal. 

Some of the more frequently used barbiturates are described briefly in the following sections. For the structures, the usual dosages required to produce sedation and hypnosis, the times of onset, and the duration of action, see Table 14-2,... 

When ingested, GHB stimulates dopamine release, leading to pleasurable effects such as euphoria, muscle relaxation, and heightened sexual desire. It also has CNS depressant effects resulting in sedation and hypnosis. Because GHB was reported to enhance grovrth hormone release, it has been used as a steroid alternative by body builders and athletes. Athletes also have used GHB as a sleep aid because they believe it promotes rapid recovery from vigorous repetitive competition. These properties and the availability of GHB in dietary supplements led to growing recreational abuse of the... 

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