Anatomical background

This review can be divided into four main sections. The first section provides the anatomical background and defines the basic behavioral terminology. The second section reviews studies on the effect of experimental manipulation of DA transmission on conventional and drug reward. The third section reviews the changes in DA transmission in specific brain areas and in the activity of DA neurons in response to conventional as compared to drug rewards, and to stimuli conditioned by them as well as during behavior reinforced by these stimuli. The fourth section provides an interpretative framework of the studies analytically reviewed in the previous sections. 

The terminal DA areas more directly involved in motivation belong to the striatal and the archistriatal areas (central nucleus of the amygdala and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis) that constitute Heimer s extended amygdala (Alheid and Heimer, 1988 Heimer et al., 1991). 

On the basis of connectional, histochemical and comparative anatomical grounds, the striatal complex has been usefully distinguished into three sectors, a medio-ventral, limbic sector, including the NAc shell and core and the olfactory tubercle and corresponding to the ventral striatum according to Heimer and Wilson (1975) an intermediate, associative 

Kelley has recently summarized the connections of the NAc in relation to feeding behavior (Kelley, 2004) (Fig. 1). 

The NAc receives brainstem information related to taste and visceral functions through direct input from the nucleus of the solitary tract to the medial shell as well as indirect input from the gustatory cortex to the lateral shell and core via parabrachial projections to the gustatory thalamus (Ricardo and Koh, 1978 Saper, 1982). Additonal taste information is relayed to the NAc from the basolateral amygdala, that integrates taste 

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Fig.33.1a-c. I -PET in a patient with differentiated thyroid cancer following thyroidectomy (a). There is no anatomical background, as 1 is highly specific for thyroid tissue. Fusion with anatomical data is mandatory for correct localization of iodine uptake (b). FDG as a nonspecific radionuclide provides some limited anatomical data, which allows localization of the area of increased tracer uptake (arrow) within the left base of the tongue (c). 

Background disease profile with resulting background noise and increased variability in clinical and anatomical pathology... 

The results of a further examination of Operation Ranch Hand veterans was recently published (Burton et al. 1998). The cohort consisted of 930 exposed subjects and 1,200 comparison individuals who served in SEA during the same period but who were not involved with spraying herbicides. The authors examined the associations between serum dioxin levels and a) chloracne, b) occurrence of acne relative to the tour of duty in SEA, and c) anatomical location of acne after service in SEA. Initial dioxin levels were computed using a first-order pharmacokinetic model with a constant half-life of 8.7 years. Four exposure categories were defined 1) comparisons, with current dioxin levels of 10 ppt 2) background Operation Ranch Hand veterans, with current dioxin levels of 10 ppt 3) low category, with current dioxin levels exceeding 10... 

C]NNC 112 in a human volunteer. Upper Row. PET Transaxial, coronal, and sagittal views of a 20-min frame obtained 40 min following the injection of 16 mCi of ["CjNNC 112 in a 22-year old male. Lower Row. MRI SPGR acquisitions in the corresponding planes. Activity concentrated in caudate, putamen, neocortex, and hippocampus. Background activity is measured in the cerebellum. Thalamic activity is very low. This distribution corresponds to the anatomical distribution of the dopamine D eceptors... 

In the SCIRun software the 3-D image can be freely rotated, and this ability provides the viewer with a clear impression of the shape of the various anatomical features, which is less apparent in the static images. In the foreground sections of Figure 6.11, the two maxillary processes can be seen as clearly separated tissues. However, in several background sections, it is possible to discern that tissue with essentially identical spectral properties approximates with the maxillary processes. 

Stimulation and just before stimulation began. The background-subtracted voltam-mograms obtained in vivo compare very well with those obtained during caKbra-tion of the microeiectrode in authentic dopamine after removal of the electrode from the animal. Anatomical evidence is also available both the stimulation and the voltammetric microeiectrode must be correctly positioned or no stimulus response will be obtained [46]. Finally, pharmacological evidence exists the effects of many drugs that interact selectively with dopamine neurons have been shown to exert predictable effects on the amplitude and duration of the stimulus responses [45, 48, 49],... 

Anomalies of renal position and rotation are well demonstrated by the high resolution anatomic images. Horseshoe and ectopic kidneys can be easily separated from the background and overlying tissues. Pelvic kidneys in particular, which often are significantly smaller than the normally positioned kidney, are well demonstrated with MR urography (Fig. 1.2.13). Hypoplastic kidneys associated with ureteric ectopia and supernumerary kidneys, which have been difficult to demonstrate with other imaging modalities, can usually be demonstrated even if there is minimal renal function. 

Immunofluorescence (IF) and genetic fluorescent labeling have become standard techniques to study the anatomy, fimction, and development of the Drosophila nervous system. This chapter provides an introduction into these techniques and is aimed to the novice in the field. Besides standard protocols for staining in whole mounts and vibratome sections, we give background information on usefiil antibodies and fly lines and provide guidelines on how to present IF data. We also introduce into the use of neuronal landmarks as a tool for precise and detailed anatomical descriptions. 

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