An historical overview

At the other extreme, the neutrinos and gamma rays emitted by a supernova in 1987 brought brilliant confirmation of the most elaborate theoretical speculations concerning the mechanisms of stellar explosion and the gravitational collapse which immediately precedes it. 

Over a period of forty years, the theory of stellar nucleosynthesis has been transformed from an abstract description of the various nuclear processes that fashion matter to a fully evolved discipline, quite able to stand up to confrontation with a vast body of observational data. 

The futnre is likely to be no less rewarding. Astronomers have not let success go to their heads and their thirst for discovery and knowledge has remained intact. They are certainly not so naive as to believe that the stars have delivered up all their secrets. The most ancient stars, those born before the Galaxy had assumed its present form, have now become a subject of intense interest. The next goal on the distant horizon is a complete picture of chemical evolution in space. In this context, it is quite clear that the early stages of this evolution are the least well understood. The end of the road is not yet in sight. 

No indeed The stars are not made from some incorruptible ether but of ordinary matter. The last post had sounded for the quintessence, the fifth and highest of the elements, along with earth, air, fire and water. Tycho enlisted the services of Kepler and in 1604 master and pupil were rewarded by the magnificent spectacle of a supernova. 

The telescope had not yet appeared. This invention would have to wait for Galileo to arrive on the scene. In 1610, pointing his newly created instrument towards the Moon, Galileo saw mountains. From this, he inferred that it was Earth-like. Today, we would be more inclined to say that the Earth is celestial, as I myself like to reiterate from one book to the next, for I find the fact so startling. At this moment, the distinction between the sublunary sphere, seat of transformation and death, and the superlunary sphere, eternal and perfect, was forever erased. And once the Earth was recognised to be celestial, the sky became mortal and comprehensible. 

---

A discussion of the motivation behind doing sputtered neutral analysis versus SIMS, plus a description of the first prototype SALI instrument. A well written introduction for someone without previous surface analysis experience it also includes an historical overview of the various post-ionization techniques. 

In this chapter, we describe some of the more widely used and successful kinetic techniques involving controlled hydrodynamics. We briefly discuss the nature of mass transport associated with each method, and assess the attributes and drawbacks. While the application of hydrodynamic methods to liquid liquid interfaces has largely involved the study of spontaneous processes, several of these methods can be used to investigate electrochemical processes at polarized ITIES we consider these applications when appropriate. We aim to provide an historical overview of the field, but since some of the older techniques have been reviewed extensively [2,3,13], we emphasize the most recent developments and applications. 

Bahcall J.N. (1989) Neutrino Astrophysics (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). Bahcall J.N. (2002) Solar Models An Historical Overview. CERN Document Server astro-ph/0209080. 

Scheuer, P.J. (1996) Marine toxin research - An historical overview. J. Nat. Toxins, 5, 181-9. 

Wolfbeis, O.S. (2004) Optical technology until the year 2000 an historical overview. In O.S. 

Theoretical studies have been reported for the neutral29 and alkaline30,31 hydrolysis of formamide. A theoretical study of the acid hydrolysis of iV-formylaziridine concluded that both N- and O-protonated pathways compete.32 In an historical overview of tetrahedral intermediates in the reactions of carboxylic acid derivatives with nucleophiles, several citations of amide reactions are included.33... 

Lonngren, R. (1992) International Approaches to Chemicals Control. An Historical Overview. Kemikalieinspektionen, Stockholm. 

Whaten EX, Bacon DR, Smith HM. Inhaled anesthetics an historical overview. Best Pract Res Chn Anaesthesiol 2005 19(3) 323-30. 

De Potter WP, Partoens P, Strecker S. Noradrenaline storing vesicles In sympathetic neurons and their role in neurotransmitter release an historical overview of controversial issues. Neurochem Res 1997 22 911-9. 

Di Marzo V. De Petrocellis L, Bisogno T, Melck D (1999b) Metabohsm of anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol an historical overview and some recent developments. Lipids 34 319-325... 

The seminal paper by Burbidge, Burbidge, Fowler, Hoyle [166] (hereafter B2FH) laid down the foundations for these processes, and Wallerstein et al. [167] provides an updated review on B2FH. An historical overview and details of how the s-process operates in AGB stars has been reviewed by Meyer [168], Busso et al. [7], and Herwig [1]. The textbooks by Clayton [9] and Lugaro [15] provide excellent discussions of the s-process at a level aimed at graduate students. 

Emulsions are defined as disperse multi-phase systems of immiscible liquids. In simplest terms, they are either oil-in-water (O/W) or water-in-oil (W/O), where the dispersed phase is listed first and exists as discrete droplets within the continuous phase. In some cases, multiple emulsions can be formed, such as water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W). Both natural and manufactured emulsions have been studied and utilized extensively, especially within the past 200 years, and Lissant has given an historical overview of the subject [106]. 

WiLiCHOWSKi M (2001) Remediation of soils by washing processes — an historical overview. In Stegmann R, Brunner G, Calmano W Matz G, eds. Treatment of contaminated soil - fundamentals, analysis, applications, pp. 417-433. Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg-New York. 

This introductory paper describes some of the problems (both theoretical and practical) of substructure searching. An historical overview is given of the various solutions which have been devised, and some areas of current research interest are outlined. 

Glasby, G. P (2006) Abiogenic origin of hydrocarbons An historical overview. Resource Geology 56, 85-98... 

The term bimetallic was introduced by Sinfelt to account for the fact that a catalyst may contain a muldtude of phases containing the acdve metallic components. Of these many phases, a characteristic is the binary alloy. The term alloy can describe a broad range of situations from well-defined phases or solid solutions to surface alloys in cases where bulk alloys are not thermodynamically favoured but a clearly defined surface local arrangement is obtained. Note that the novel core-shell bimetallic structures are included in this catchall term. An historical overview of the properties of alloys in connection with catalysis has been published by Ponec. At present, a broadly agreed view accepts that alloy components can be chemically recognised and, therefore, supports a somewhat localised interpretation of the alloy nature and properties. Obviously, a delocalised view loses most of its meaning in the case of clusters due to its finite dimensions. 

This chapter concentrates on one particular application and the methods needed to effectively tackle the architecture design. An historical overview of the evolution in the design methodologies and their effectiveness per-... 

Among the topics covered in the supplement is an historical overview about the knowledge of the biochemistiy of Monoamine Oxidase with speculations about future prospects, a review of the present knowledge about the catalytic properties of Monoamine Oxidase, reviews of the biochemistry and pharma-cology of the semicarbazide-sensiti ve Amine Oxidases and of the endogenous substrates both for Monoamine Oxidase and other Amine Oxidases. Reviews of the mechanism of action for the... 

Eor an historical overview, see Erik J. Ziircher, Turkey (New York I. B. Tau-ris, 2004), pp. 9-90. Historians of the Ottoman Empire use the term Tanz-imat to denote the period between 1839-76. The reformist spirit certainly persists through the reign of Sultan Abdiilhamid II (1876-1909), despite his repressions. 

For an historical overview (in English), see Turan Erol, Painting in Turkey in Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century, A History of Turkish) Painting, ed. Giirsel Renda etal. (Geneva PALASAR, 1988), pp. 87-234. 

Sommer A (2008) Vitamin A deficiency and clinical disease An historical overview. J Nutr 138 1835... 

---