Batteries alkaline cell

When nickel hydroxide is oxidized at the nickel electrode in alkaline storage batteries the black trivalent gelatinous nickel hydroxide oxide [12026-04-9], Ni(0H)0, is formed. In nickel battery technology, nickel hydroxide oxide is known as the nickel active mass (see Batteries, secondary cells). Nickel hydroxide nitrate [56171-41-6], Ni(0H)N02, and nickel chloride hydroxide [25965-88-2], NiCl(OH), are frequently mentioned as intermediates for the production of nickel powder in aqueous solution. The binding energies for these compounds have been studied (55). 

Battery electrolytes are concentrated solutions of strong electrolytes and the Debye-Huckel theory of dilute solutions is only an approximation. Typical values for the resistivity of battery electrolytes range from about 1 ohmcm for sulfuric acid [7664-93-9] H2SO4, in lead—acid batteries and for potassium hydroxide [1310-58-3] KOH, in alkaline cells to about 100 ohmcm for organic electrolytes in lithium [7439-93-2] Li, batteries. 

Cylindrical alkaline cells are made in only a few standard si2es and have only one important chemistry. In contrast, miniature alkaline cells are made in a large number of different si2es, using many different chemical systems. Whereas the cylindrical alkaline batteries are multipurpose batteries, used for a wide variety of devices under a variety of discharge conditions, miniature alkaline batteries are highly speciali2ed, with the cathode material, separator type, and electrolyte all chosen to match the particular appHcation. 

There are many methods of fabricating the electrodes for these cell systems. The eadiest commercially successhil developments used nickel hydroxide [12054-48-7] Ni(OH)2, positive electrodes. These electrodes are commonly called nickel electrodes, disregarding the actual chemical composition. Alkaline cells using the copper oxide—2inc couple preceeded nickel batteries but the CuO system never functioned well as a secondary battery. It was, however, commercially available for many years as a primary battery (see BatterieS-PRIMARY cells). 

The dry cell was invented by Leclanche in the 1860s. This type of battery was developed in the 19th century. In the 1940s, Rubel achieved significant progress in alkaline-zinc batteries, and manufactured zinc powder with high surface area to prevent zinc passivation. 

Figure 1. Cell construction of an alkaline-manganese battery...

The cell construction of an alkaline-manganese battery is shown in Fig. 1. The steel can serves as a current collector for... 

Amalgamated zinc powder has been used as the negative material to prevent zinc corrosion and zinc passivation. Recently, from the viewpoint of environmental problems, mercury-free alkaline-manganese batteries were developed by using zinc powder with indium, bismuth and other additives [2-4]. Adding indium to zinc powder is the most effective way to improve the characteristics of the cells [3]. Figure 3 shows the variation in the internal impedance of the cells according to the additive content of the zinc powder. 

Zn - Mn02 batteries [2] dominate the world s small-format battery industry. In 1995 Zn-carbon batteries (the carbon rod in the center of Leclanche cells is the reason for this name) comprised 67 percent of the world market, and the other 33% belonged to alkaline cells (Table 1). 

Alkaline batteries were introduced in the early 1960s they last two to five times longer than Zn-carbon cells on continuous discharge and command two or three times the price in the USA (far more in Europe and the East). Alkaline cells became a necessary invention and they succeeded as a result of the requirements of the electronic devices. The essential improvement was the change from ammonium chloride and/or zinc chloride electrolyte to alkaline (KOH) electrolyte, the steel can construction, the outside cathode, and the zinc powder (large surface) anode. A main low-cost feature is that they use pressed cathodes and do not need to follow "jellyroll"... 

Region/Country Population Income [ 10 1 Batteries per No. of batteries Alkaline cell... 

RAM batteries are suitable for all applications served by single-use alkaline cells,... 

If it is desired to optimize RAM battery usage, the examples in Fig. 5 should be considered. A 0.62 Ah cycling at 4 Q (50 percent DOD of 1.25 Ah initial capacity) results in 80 cycles with a cumulative capacity of nearly 50 Ah. Recharging is done after each discharge. A 0.38 Ah cycling at 10 Q (25 percent DOD of 1.5 Ah initial capacity) results in over 300 cycles, with a cumulative capacity over 100 Ah. The replacement of 60 alkaline cells and about... 

It is so universally applied that it may be found in combination with metal oxide cathodes (e.g., HgO, AgO, NiOOH, Mn02), with catalytically active oxygen electrodes, and with inert cathodes using aqueous halide or ferricyanide solutions as active materials ("zinc-flow" or "redox" batteries). The cell (battery) sizes vary from small button cells for hearing aids or watches up to kilowatt-hour modules for electric vehicles (electrotraction). Primary and storage batteries exist in all categories except that of flow-batteries, where only storage types are found. Acidic, neutral, and alkaline electrolytes are used as well. The (simplified) half-cell reaction for the zinc electrode is the same in all electrolytes ... 

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